150+ common mistakes in spoken English 1. Mistake: "I'm agree with you." Correction: "I agree with you." Explanation: The verb "agree" does not need the auxiliary verb "am." 2. Mistake: "I have 25 years old." Correction: "I am 25 years old." Explanation: Use the verb "to be" (am) to express age. 3. Mistake: "I have to go in my country." Correction: "I have to go to my country." Explanation: Use the preposition "to" when expressing movement towards a location. 4. Mistake: "I want that you help me." Correction: "I want you to help me." Explanation: Use the infinitive form of the verb ("to help") after the verb "want." 5. Mistake: "I will tell you what's happened." Correction: "I will tell you what happened." Explanation: Use the simple past tense ("happened") to describe a past event. 6. Mistake: "I go to the movies every weekends." Correction: "I go to the movies every weekend." Explanation: Use the singular form ("weekend") when expressing a recurring event. 7. Mistake: "I have many works to do." Correction: "I have a lot of work to do." Explanation: Use the singular form ("work") when expressing a general amount or workload. 8. Mistake: "I did a mistake." Correction: "I made a mistake." Explanation: Use the verb "make" instead of "do" when referring to a mistake. 9. Mistake: "I have been here since five hours." Correction: "I have been here for five hours." Explanation: Use the preposition "for" to indicate the duration of time. 10. Mistake: "I can to swim." Correction: "I can swim." Explanation: The verb "can" is followed by the base form of the verb ("swim") without "to." 11. Mistake: "I want that she comes early." Correction: "I want her to come early." Explanation: Use the infinitive form of the verb ("to come") after the verb "want." 12. Mistake: "I don't know nothing about that." Correction: "I don't know anything about that." Explanation: Use the negative form "don't know anything" instead of "don't know nothing." 13. Mistake: "I saw him yesterday and I said hello for him." Correction: "I saw him yesterday and I said hello to him." Explanation: Use the preposition "to" when addressing someone. 14. Mistake: "She speaks English very good." Correction: "She speaks English very well." Explanation: Use the adverb "well" to describe the quality of speaking. 15. Mistake: "He gave me a good advice." Correction: "He gave me good advice." Explanation: Use the singular form "advice" without the indefinite article "a" to express a general idea. 16. Mistake: "I went to the store and I bought some bread and a milk." Correction: "I went to the store and I bought some bread and milk." Explanation: Use the uncountable form "milk" without the indefinite article "a." 17. Mistake: "I'm living in this city since two years." Correction: "I have been living in this city for two years." Explanation: Use the present perfect continuous tense 18. Mistake: "I can't understand nothing." Correction: "I can't understand anything." Explanation: Use the negative form "can't understand anything" instead of "can't understand nothing." 19. Mistake: "He don't like to eat vegetables." Correction: "He doesn't like to eat vegetables." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 20. Mistake: "She don't have any money." Correction: "She doesn't have any money." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "she," "he," or "it." 21. Mistake: "I seen that movie last night." Correction: "I saw that movie last night." Explanation: Use the past tense of the verb "see" ("saw") instead of "seen" to indicate a completed action in the past. 22. Mistake: "I'm here since morning." Correction: "I've been here since morning." Explanation: Use the present perfect tense ("I've been") to indicate an action that started in the past and continues into the present. 23. Mistake: "He is good in playing the guitar." Correction: "He is good at playing the guitar." Explanation: Use the preposition "at" to describe proficiency or skill in an activity. 24. Mistake: "I don't have no time." Correction: "I don't have any time." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("don't have no") and use "any" to express a lack of something. 25. Mistake: "She's more smarter than him." Correction: "She's smarter than him." Explanation: Use either "more smart" or "smarter," but not both together. The correct form is "smarter." 26. Mistake: "He don't know what to do." Correction: "He doesn't know what to do." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 27. Mistake: "I have to leave early because I have an appointment with the doctor." Correction: "I have to leave early because I have an appointment with the doctor." Explanation: The sentence is already correct; no correction needed. 28. Mistake: "I can to go to the party if I finish my work." Correction: "I can go to the party if I finish my work." Explanation: The verb "can" is followed by the base form of the verb ("go") without "to." 29. Mistake: "He's going to the vacation next week." Correction: "He's going on vacation next week." Explanation: Use the preposition "on" before the noun "vacation" to indicate going on a vacation. 30. Mistake: "I don't have idea about it." Correction: "I don't have any idea about it." Explanation: Use the phrase "any idea" to express a lack of knowledge or understanding. 31. Mistake: "I don't know what time is it." Correction: "I don't know what time it is." Explanation: In English, the question word "what" is followed by the subject-verb order ("time it is"). 33. Mistake: "I can't find my keys nowhere." Correction: "I can't find my keys anywhere." Explanation: Use "anywhere" to indicate a lack of location or presence. 34. Mistake: "I have a lot of homeworks to do." Correction: "I have a lot of homework to do." Explanation: Use the singular form "homework" without the plural "s" to express multiple assignments. 35. Mistake: "I'm not sure can I come to the party." Correction: "I'm not sure if I can come to the party." Explanation: Use the conjunction "if" to introduce a conditional clause. 36. Mistake: "She said me that she is busy." Correction: "She told me that she is busy." Explanation: Use the verb "told" instead of "said" when reporting someone's words. 37. Mistake: "I don't understand what he speaks." Correction: "I don't understand what he is saying." Explanation: Use the present continuous form ("is saying") to indicate an ongoing action. 38. Mistake: "He don't have to go to work today." Correction: "He doesn't have to go to work today." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 39. Mistake: "Can you borrowing me your pen?" Correction: "Can you lend me your pen?" Explanation: Use the verb "lend" to indicate temporarily giving something to someone. 40. Mistake: "I need to go at the supermarket." Correction: "I need to go to the supermarket." Explanation: Use the preposition "to" before the noun "supermarket" to indicate direction or destination. 41. Mistake: "I have seen him yesterday." Correction: "I saw him yesterday." Explanation: Use the simple past tense ("saw") to indicate a completed action in the past. 42. Mistake: "I don't have idea how to solve this problem." Correction: "I don't have any idea how to solve this problem." Explanation: Use the phrase "any idea" to express a lack of knowledge or understanding. 43. Mistake: "He plays football very good." Correction: "He plays football very well." Explanation: Use the adverb "well" to describe the quality of playing. 44. Mistake: "She's been waiting for the bus since two hours." Correction: "She's been waiting for the bus for two hours." Explanation: Use the preposition "for" to indicate the duration of time. 45. Mistake: "I can't wait no longer." Correction: "I can't wait any longer." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("can't wait no") and use "any" to express a lack of something. 46. Mistake: "I have visited Paris yet." Correction: "I haven't visited Paris yet." Explanation: Use the negative form "haven't visited" to indicate that the action has not occurred. 47. Mistake: "I'm going to meet my friends at 8 pm o'clock." Correction: "I'm going to meet my friends at 8 pm." Explanation: Remove the redundant "o'clock" after specifying the time. 48. Mistake: "I will call you as soon as I will arrive." Correction: "I will call you as soon as I arrive." Mistake: "I don't know what time is the meeting." Correction: "I don't know what time the meeting is." Explanation: In English, the subject-verb order is used in questions ("what time the meeting is"). 49. Mistake: "He didn't went to the party last night." Correction: "He didn't go to the party last night." Explanation: Use the base form of the verb "go" ("didn't go") to indicate a past action. 50. Mistake: "I have many problems. I don't know what I can do." Correction: "I have many problems. I don't know what to do." Explanation: Use the phrase "what to do" to express uncertainty or indecision. 51. Mistake: "I'm going to the mall to buy some new clothes." Correction: "I'm going to the mall to buy some new clothes." Explanation: The sentence is already correct; no correction needed. 52. Mistake: "I'm so hungry, so I will to eat a pizza." Correction: "I'm so hungry, so I will eat a pizza." Explanation: Remove the auxiliary verb "to" before the verb "eat" ("so I will eat a pizza"). 53. Mistake: "She's working hardly on her project." Correction: "She's working hard on her project." Explanation: Use the adverb "hard" to describe the intensity of work, not the adjective "hardly" which means "almost not." 54. Mistake: "I have been to visit my family last weekend." Correction: "I visited my family last weekend." Explanation: Use the simple past tense ("visited") to indicate a completed action in the past. 55. Mistake: "I'm sorry, I didn't understand nothing you said." Correction: "I'm sorry, I didn't understand anything you said." Explanation: Use the negative form "didn't understand anything" instead of "didn't understand nothing." 56. Mistake: "He asked me what time is it." Correction: "He asked me what time it is." Explanation: In reported speech, maintain the subject-verb order ("what time it is") after the verb "asked." 57. Mistake: "I'm living here since two years." Correction: "I've been living here for two years." Explanation: Use the present perfect tense ("I've been living") to indicate an action that started in the past and continues into the present. 58. Mistake: "I want to tell you that I can't able to come." Correction: "I want to tell you that I can't come." Explanation: Remove the word "able" after "can't" since it is redundant. 59. Mistake: "She's the most beautiful girl between all of her friends." Correction: "She's the most beautiful girl among all of her friends." Explanation: Use the preposition "among" to indicate a comparison within a group. 60. Mistake: "I'm tired because I didn't slept well last night." Correction: "I'm tired because I didn't sleep well last night." Explanation: Use the base form of the verb "sleep" ("didn't sleep") in the past tense. 61. Mistake: "I have to go to the airport at 7 am in the morning." Correction: "I have to go to the airport at 7 am." Explanation: Remove the redundant phrase "in the morning" after specifying the time. 63. Mistake: "He don't want to go to the party." Correction: "He doesn't want to go to the party." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 64. Mistake: "I'm going to the beach and swim." Correction: "I'm going to the beach to swim." Explanation: Use the infinitive form of the verb ("to swim") to express the purpose or intention of an action. 65. Mistake: "I'm very exciting about the concert." Correction: "I'm very excited about the concert." Explanation: Use the adjective "excited" to describe the feeling of anticipation or enthusiasm. 66. Mistake: "She's pregnant for five months." Correction: "She's been pregnant for five months." Explanation: Use the present perfect tense ("She's been pregnant") to indicate a duration of time that started in the past and continues into the present. 67. Mistake: "I don't have no idea what to do." Correction: "I don't have any idea what to do." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("don't have no") and use "any" to express a lack of something. 68. Mistake: "I'm not interesting in sports." Correction: "I'm not interested in sports." Explanation: Use the adjective "interested" to describe the state of being engaged or curious about something. 69. Mistake: "I can't to find my keys." Correction: "I can't find my keys." Explanation: The verb "can't" is followed by the base form of the verb ("find") without "to." 70. Mistake: "I'm studying English since three years." Correction: "I've been studying English for three years." Explanation: Use the present perfect continuous tense ("I've been studying") to indicate an ongoing action that started in the past. 71. Mistake: "He's been working hardly on his project." Correction: "He's been working hard on his project." Explanation: Use the adverb "hard" to describe the intensity of work, not the adjective "hardly" which means "almost not." 72. Mistake: "I'm living here for two months ago." Correction: "I've been living here for two months." Explanation: Use the present perfect tense ("I've been living") to indicate an action that started in the past and continues into the present. 73. Mistake: "I'm going to the cinema with my friends together." Correction: "I'm going to the cinema with my friends." Explanation: Remove the word "together" as it is redundant when stating an action done with friends. 74. Mistake: "I can speak English very good." Correction: "I can speak English very well." Explanation: Use the adverb "well" to describe the quality of speaking. 75. Mistake: "He's the tallest between his brothers." Correction: "He's the tallest among his brothers." Explanation: Use the preposition "among" to indicate a comparison within a group. 76. Mistake: "I have a lot of homeworks to do." Correction: "I have a lot of homework to do." Explanation: Use the singular form "homework" without the plural "s" to express multiple assignments. 77. Mistake: "I don't have no money." Correction: "I don't have any money." Mistake: "He plays soccer good." Correction: "He plays soccer well." Explanation: Use the adverb "well" to describe the quality of playing. 78. Mistake: "I don't know nothing about that." Correction: "I don't know anything about that." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("don't know nothing") and use "anything" to express a lack of knowledge or information. 79. Mistake: "She is working hardly on her project." Correction: "She is working hard on her project." Explanation: Use the adverb "hard" to describe the intensity of work, not the adjective "hardly" which means "almost not." 80. Mistake: "He don't like pizza." Correction: "He doesn't like pizza." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 81. Mistake: "I have to go to the doctor tomorrow because I have a fever." Correction: "I have to go to the doctor tomorrow because I have a fever." Explanation: The sentence is already correct; no correction needed. 82. Mistake: "I can to swim." Correction: "I can swim." Explanation: The verb "can" is followed by the base form of the verb ("swim") without "to." 83. Mistake: "He's going to the gym to do some exercises." Correction: "He's going to the gym to do some exercises." Explanation: The sentence is already correct; no correction needed. 84. Mistake: "I don't have no idea what you're talking about." Correction: "I don't have any idea what you're talking about." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("don't have no") and use "any" to express a lack of something. 85. Mistake: "I'm living in this city for two years." Correction: "I've been living in this city for two years." Explanation: Use the present perfect tense ("I've been living") to indicate an action that started in the past and continues into the present. 86. Mistake: "I'm not sure can I come to the party." Correction: "I'm not sure if I can come to the party." Explanation: Use the conjunction "if" to introduce a conditional clause. 87. Mistake: "I saw him yesterday night." Correction: "I saw him last night." Explanation: Use "last night" to indicate the specific night in the past. 88. Mistake: "I'm going to travel during two weeks." Correction: "I'm going to travel for two weeks." Explanation: Use the preposition "for" to indicate the duration of time. 89. Mistake: "She's the most beautiful girl between all." Correction: "She's the most beautiful girl among all." Explanation: Use the preposition "among" to indicate a comparison within a group. 90. Mistake: "I don't have no time." Correction: "I don't have any time." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("don't have no") and use "any" to express a lack of something. 91. Mistake: "He don't understand what I'm saying." Correction: "He doesn't understand what I'm saying." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 94. Mistake: "I will come to the party if I will have time." Correction: "I will come to the party if I have time." Explanation: Use the present tense ("if I have time") after "if" to express a conditional statement. 95. Mistake: "She's going to the store for buying groceries." Correction: "She's going to the store to buy groceries." Explanation: Use the infinitive form of the verb ("to buy") to express the purpose or intention of an action. 96. Mistake: "I haven't seen him since a long time." Correction: "I haven't seen him for a long time." Explanation: Use the preposition "for" to indicate the duration of time. 97. Mistake: "He works hardly every day." Correction: "He works hard every day." Explanation: Use the adverb "hard" to describe the intensity of work, not the adjective "hardly" which means "almost not." 98. Mistake: "I'm not interesting in going to the party." Correction: "I'm not interested in going to the party." Explanation: Use the adjective "interested" to describe the state of being engaged or curious about something. 99. Mistake: "I'm studying English since three years." Correction: "I've been studying English for three years." Explanation: Use the present perfect continuous tense ("I've been studying") to indicate an ongoing action that started in the past. 100. Mistake: "I can't able to understand this concept." Correction: "I can't understand this concept." Explanation: Remove the word "able" after "can't" since it is redundant. 101. Mistake: "I have to go to the supermarket for buying some groceries." Correction: "I have to go to the supermarket to buy some groceries." Explanation: Use the infinitive form of the verb ("to buy") to express the purpose or intention of an action. 102. Mistake: "He don't like to eat vegetables." Correction: "He doesn't like to eat vegetables." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 103. Mistake: "I go to the gym every day for keeping fit." Correction: "I go to the gym every day to keep fit." Explanation: Use the infinitive form of the verb ("to keep") to express the purpose or intention of an action. 104. Mistake: "I don't have no time for studying." Correction: "I don't have any time for studying." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("don't have no") and use "any" to express a lack of something. 105. Mistake: "I'm not sure can I make it to the meeting." Correction: "I'm not sure if I can make it to the meeting." Explanation: Use the conjunction "if" to introduce a conditional clause. 106. Mistake: "She's the most smartest person in the room." Correction: "She's the smartest person in the room." Explanation: The word "smartest" already expresses the superlative degree, so there's no need to use "most" before it. 107. Mistake: "I have been waiting for the bus since two hours." Correction: "I have been waiting for the bus for two hours." Explanation: Use the preposition "for" to indicate the duration of time. 108. Mistake: "He don't know how to swim." Correction: "He doesn't know how to swim." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 109. Mistake: "I can to speak three languages." Correction: "I can speak three languages." Explanation: The verb "can" is followed by the base form of the verb ("speak") without "to." 110. Mistake: "I'm going to the party with my friends together." Correction: "I'm going to the party with my friends." Explanation: Remove the word "together" as it is redundant when stating an action done with friends. 111. Mistake: "He works in the company since five years." Correction: "He has worked in the company for five years." Explanation: Use the present perfect tense ("He has worked") to indicate an action that started in the past and continues into the present. 112. Mistake: "I don't have no idea how to solve this problem." Correction: "I don't have any idea how to solve this problem." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("don't have no") and use "any" to express a lack of something. 113. Mistake: "She don't understand what I'm saying." Correction: "She doesn't understand what I'm saying." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 115. Mistake: "I don't have no money to buy that." Correction: "I don't have any money to buy that." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("don't have no") and use "any" to express a lack of something. 116. Mistake: "He speaks English very good." Correction: "He speaks English very well." Explanation: Use the adverb "well" to describe the quality of speaking. 117. Mistake: "I can't able to come to the party." Correction: "I can't come to the party." Explanation: Remove the word "able" after "can't" since it is redundant. 118. Mistake: "She's the most prettiest girl I know." Correction: "She's the prettiest girl I know." Explanation: The word "prettiest" already expresses the superlative degree, so there's no need to use "most" before it. 119. Mistake: "I go to the gym oftenly." Correction: "I go to the gym often." Explanation: Use the adverb "often" to describe the frequency of going to the gym, without adding the suffix "-ly." 120. Mistake: "I don't know nothing about that subject." Correction: "I don't know anything about that subject." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("don't know nothing") and use "anything" to express a lack of knowledge or information. 121. Mistake: "He don't want to come with us." Correction: "He doesn't want to come with us." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 122. Mistake: "I'm very tired. I want to sleep early." Correction: "I'm very tired. I want to go to bed early." Explanation: Use the phrase "go to bed" to refer to the act of sleeping. 123. Mistake: "He runs fastly." Correction: "He runs fast." Explanation: Use the adjective "fast" to describe the speed of running, without adding the suffix "-ly." 124. Mistake: "I'm studying English since two years." Correction: "I've been studying English for two years." Explanation: Use the present perfect continuous tense ("I've been studying") to indicate an ongoing action that started in the past. 125. Mistake: "I can't to do it." Correction: "I can't do it." Explanation: The verb "can't" is followed by the base form of the verb ("do") without "to." 126. Mistake: "I have to go to work in early morning." Correction: "I have to go to work in the early morning." Explanation: Use the article "the" before "early morning" to indicate a specific time period. 127. Mistake: "I didn't went to the party last night." Correction: "I didn't go to the party last night." Explanation: Use the base form of the verb "go" ("didn't go") in the past tense, without adding "went." 128. Mistake: "He's a very friend of mine." Correction: "He's a good friend of mine." Explanation: Use the adjective "good" to describe a close relationship or friendship. 129. Mistake: "I have many works to do." Correction: "I have much work to do." Mistake: "I don't know where is he." Correction: "I don't know where he is." Explanation: In a question or indirect statement, the subject ("he") comes before the verb ("is"). 130. Mistake: "I'm not used to drink coffee in the morning." Correction: "I'm not used to drinking coffee in the morning." Explanation: Use the gerund form ("drinking") after the phrase "used to." 131. Mistake: "He speaks very fluently in English." Correction: "He speaks English very fluently." Explanation: Place the adverb ("very fluently") before the verb ("speaks"). 132. Mistake: "I'm living here since three years." Correction: "I've been living here for three years." Explanation: Use the present perfect continuous tense ("I've been living") to indicate an ongoing action that started in the past. 133. Mistake: "I'm not sure can I do it." Correction: "I'm not sure if I can do it." Explanation: Use the conjunction "if" to introduce a conditional clause. 134. Mistake: "She's the most smartest person I know." Correction: "She's the smartest person I know." Explanation: The word "smartest" already expresses the superlative degree, so there's no need to use "most" before it. 135. Mistake: "I can't to find my keys." Correction: "I can't find my keys." Explanation: The verb "can't" is followed by the base form of the verb ("find") without "to." 136. Mistake: "He works hardly on his assignments." Correction: "He works hard on his assignments." Explanation: Use the adverb "hard" to describe the intensity of work, not the adjective "hardly" which means "almost not." 137. Mistake: "I didn't went to the movies last weekend." Correction: "I didn't go to the movies last weekend." Explanation: Use the base form of the verb "go" ("didn't go") in the past tense, without adding "went." 138. Mistake: "I have to go to bed early in the night." Correction: "I have to go to bed early at night." Explanation: Use the preposition "at" before "night" to indicate a specific time. 139. Mistake: "I don't have no idea how to solve this problem." Correction: "I don't have any idea how to solve this problem." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("don't have no") and use "any" to express a lack of something. 140. Mistake: "She don't understand what I'm saying." Correction: "She doesn't understand what I'm saying." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 141. Mistake: "He is always arrive late to work." Correction: "He always arrives late to work." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "arrives" to match the subject "he." 142. Mistake: "I can to help you with that." Correction: "I can help you with that." Explanation: The verb "can" is followed by the base form of the verb ("help") without "to." 145. Mistake: "He don't know how to swim." Correction: "He doesn't know how to swim." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 146. Mistake: "I don't have no time for studying." Correction: "I don't have any time for studying." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("don't have no") and use "any" to express a lack of something. 147. Mistake: "I go to the gym every day for keeping fit." Correction: "I go to the gym every day to keep fit." Explanation: Use the infinitive form of the verb ("to keep") to express the purpose or intention of an action. 148. Mistake: "I'm not sure can I make it to the meeting." Correction: "I'm not sure if I can make it to the meeting." Explanation: Use the conjunction "if" to introduce a conditional clause. 149. Mistake: "She don't like to eat vegetables." Correction: "She doesn't like to eat vegetables." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 150. Mistake: "I have been waiting for the bus since two hours." Correction: "I have been waiting for the bus for two hours." Explanation: Use the preposition "for" to indicate the duration of time. 151. Mistake: "I don't have no idea about that topic." Correction: "I don't have any idea about that topic." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("don't have no") and use "any" to express a lack of something. 152. Mistake: "I can't able to come to the party." Correction: "I can't come to the party." Explanation: Remove the word "able" after "can't" since it is redundant. 153. Mistake: "He's the most smartest person in the room." Correction: "He's the smartest person in the room." Explanation: The word "smartest" already expresses the superlative degree, so there's no need to use "most" before it. 154. Mistake: "I go to the gym oftenly." Correction: "I go to the gym often." Explanation: Use the adverb "often" to describe the frequency of going to the gym, without adding the suffix "-ly." 155. Mistake: "I didn't went to the party last night." Correction: "I didn't go to the party last night." Explanation: Use the base form of the verb "go" ("didn't go") in the past tense, without adding "went." 156. Mistake: "He works in the company since five years." Correction: "He has worked in the company for five years." Explanation: Use the present perfect tense ("He has worked") to indicate an action that started in the past and continues into the present. 157. Mistake: "I can to speak three languages." Correction: "I can speak three languages." Explanation: The verb "can" is followed by the base form of the verb ("speak") without "to." 159. Mistake: "He don't want to come with us." Correction: "He doesn't want to come with us." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 160. Mistake: "I can't to do it." Correction: "I can't do it." Explanation: The verb "can't" is followed by the base form of the verb ("do") without "to." 161. Mistake: "I have to go to work in early morning." Correction: "I have to go to work in the early morning." Explanation: Use the article "the" before "early morning" to indicate a specific time period. 162. Mistake: "I'm not sure can I make it on time." Correction: "I'm not sure if I can make it on time." Explanation: Use the conjunction "if" to introduce a conditional clause. 163. Mistake: "She don't understand what I'm saying." Correction: "She doesn't understand what I'm saying." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "does" ("doesn't") for subjects like "he," "she," or "it." 164. Mistake: "He is always arrive late to work." Correction: "He always arrives late to work." Explanation: Use the third-person singular form of the verb "arrives" to match the subject "he." 165. Mistake: "I'm very tired. I want to sleep early." Correction: "I'm very tired. I want to go to bed early." Explanation: Use the phrase "go to bed" to refer to the act of sleeping. 166. Mistake: "I don't know nothing about that subject." Correction: "I don't know anything about that subject." Explanation: Avoid using double negatives ("don't know nothing") and use "anything" to express a lack of knowledge or information. 167. Mistake: "I go to the library for borrow some books." Correction: "I go to the library to borrow some books." Explanation: Use the infinitive form of the verb ("to borrow") to express the purpose or intention of an action. 168. Mistake: "He speaks English very good." Correction: "He speaks English very well." Explanation: Use the adverb "well" to describe the quality of speaking. 169. Mistake: "I'm not used to drink coffee in the morning." Correction: "I'm not used to drinking coffee in the morning." Explanation: Use the gerund form ("drinking") after the phrase "used to." 170. Mistake: "I'm living here since three years." Correction: "I've been living here for three years." Explanation: Use the present perfect continuous tense ("I've been living") to indicate an ongoing action that started in the past. 171. Mistake: "He speaks very fluently in English." Correction: "He speaks English very fluently." Explanation: Place the adverb ("very fluently") before the verb ("speaks"). 172. Mistake: "I'm not sure can I do it." Correction: "I'm not sure if I can do it." Explanation: Use the conjunction "if" to introduce a conditional clause.

Biology of Bitterness A. There is a reason why grapefruit juice is served in little glasses: most people don’t want to drink more than a few ounces at a time. aringin, a natural chemical compound found in grapefruit, tastes bitter. Some people like that bitterness in small doses and believe it enhances the general flavor, but others would rather avoid it altogether. So juice packagers often select grapefruit with low naringin though the compound has antioxidant properties that some nutritionists contend may help prevent cancer and arteriosclerosis. B. It is possible, however, to get the goodness of grapefruit juice without the bitter taste. I found that out by participating in a test conducted at the Linguagen Corporation, a biotechnology company in Cranbury, New Jersey. Sets of two miniature white paper cups, labeled 304and 305, were placed before five people seated around a conference table. Each of us drank from one cup and then the other, cleansing our palates between tastes with water and a soda cracker. Even the smallest sip of 304 had grapefruit ‘s unmistakable bitter bite. But 305 was smoother; there was the sour taste of citrus but none of the bitterness of naringin. This juice had been treated with adenosine monophosphate, or AMP, a compound that blocks the bitterness in foods without making them less nutritious. C. Taste research is a booming business these days, with scientists delving into all five basics-sweet, bitter, sour, salty, and umami, the savory taste of protein. Bitterness is of special interest to industry because of its untapped potential in food. There are thousands of bitter -tasting compounds in nature. They defend plants by warning animals away and protect animals by letting them know when a plant may be poisonous. But the system isn’t foolproof. Grapefruit and cruciferous vegetable like Brussels sprouts and kale are nutritious despite-and sometimes because of-their bitter-tasting components. Over time, many people have learned to love them, at least in small doses. “Humans are the only species that enjoys bitter taste,” says Charles Zuker, a neuroscientist at the University of California School of Medicine at San Diego. “Every other species is averse to bitter because it means bad news. But we have learned to enjoy it. We drink coffee, which is bitter, and quinine [in tonic water] too. We enjoy having that spice in our lives.” Because bitterness can be pleasing in small quantities but repellent when intense, bitter blockers like AMP could make a whole range of foods, drinks, and medicines more palatable-and therefore more profitable. D. People have varying capacities for tasting bitterness, and the differences appear to be genetic. About 75 percent of people are sensitive to the taste of the bitter compounds phenylthiocarbamide and 6-n-propylthiouracil. and 25 percent are insensitive. Those who are sensitive to phenylthiocarbamide seem to be less likely than others to eat cruciferous vegetables, according to Stephen Wooding, a geneticist at the University of Utah. Some people, known as supertasters, are especially sensitive to 6-n-propylthiouraci because they have an unusually high number of taste buds. Supertasters tend to shun all kinds of bitter-tasting things, including vegetable, coffee, and dark chocolate. Perhaps as a result, they tend to be thin. They’re also less fond of alcoholic drinks, which are often slightly bitter. Dewar’s scotch, for instance, tastes somewhat sweet to most people. ” But a supertaster tastes no sweetness at all, only bitterness,” says Valerie Duffy, an associate professor of dietetics at the University of Connecticut at Storrs. E. In one recent study, Duffy found that supertasters consume alcoholic beverages, on average, only two to three times a week, compared with five or six times for the average nontasters. Each taste bud, which looks like an onion, consists of 50 to 100 elongated cells running from the top of the bud to the bottom. At the top is a little clump of receptors that capture the taste molecules, known as tastants, in food and drink. The receptors function much like those for sight and smell. Once a bitter signal has been received, it is relayed via proteins known as G proteins. The G protein involved in the perception of bitterness, sweetness, and umami was identified in the early 1990s by Linguagen’s founder, Robert Margolskee, at Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City. Known as gustducin, the protein triggers a cascade of chemical reactions that lead to changes in ion concentrations within the cell. Ultimately, this delivers a signal to the brain that registers as bitter. “The signaling system is like a bucket brigade,” Margolskee says. “It goes from the G protein to other proteins.” F. In 2000 Zuker and others found some 30 different kinds of genes that code for bitter-taste receptors. “We knew the number would have to be large because there is such a large universe of bitter tastants,” Zuker says. Yet no matter which tastant enters the mouth or which receptor it attaches to, bitter always tastes the same to us. The only variation derives from its intensity and the ways in which it can be flavored by the sense of smell. “Taste cells are like a light switch,” Zuker says. “They are either on or off.” G. Once they figured put the taste mechanism, scientists began to think of ways to interfere with it. They tried AMP, an organic compound found in breast milk and other substances, which is created as cells break down food. Amp has no bitterness of its own, but when put it in foods, Margolskee and his colleagues discovered, it attaches to bitter-taste receptors. As effective as it is, AMP may not be able to dampen every type pf bitter taste, because it probably doesn’t attach to all 30 bitter-taste receptors. So Linguagen has scaled up the hunt for other bitter blockers with a technology called high-throughput screening. Researchers start by coaxing cells in culture to activate bitter-taste receptors. Then candidate substances, culled from chemical compound libraries, are dropped onto the receptors, and scientists look for evidence of a reaction. H. Tin time, some taste researchers believe, compounds like AMP will help make processed foods less unhealthy. Consider, for example, that a single cup of Campbell’s chicken noodle soup contains 850 milligrams of sodium chloride, or table salt-more than a third of the recommended daily allowance. The salt masks the bitterness created by the high temperatures used in the canning process, which cause sugars and amino acids to react. Part of the salt could be replaced by another salt, potassium chloride, which tends to be scarce in some people’s diets. Potassium chloride has a bitter aftertaste, but that could be eliminated with a dose of AMP. Bitter blockers could also be used in place of cherry or grape flavoring to take the harshness out of children’s cough syrup, and they could dampen the bitterness of antihistamines, antibiotics, certain HIV drugs, and other medications. I. A number of foodmakers have already begun to experiment with AMP in their products, and other bitter blockers are being developed by rival firms such as Senomyx in La Jolla, California. In a few years, perhaps, after food companies have taken the bitterness from canned soup and TV dinners, they can set their sights on something more useful: a bitter blocker in a bottle that any of us can sprinkle on our brussels sprouts or stir into our grapefruit juice. Questions 1-8 The reading Passage has seven paragraphs A-I. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-I, in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet. 1. Experiment on bitterness conducted 2. Look into the future application 3. Bitterness means different information for human and animals 4. Spread process of bitterness inside of body 5. How AMP blocks bitterness 6. Some bitterness blocker may help lower unhealthy impact 7. Bitterness introduced from a fruit 8. Genetic feature determines sensitivity Question 9-12 Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the Reading Passage for each answer. The reason why grapefruit tastes bitter is because a substance called (9) …………….. contained in it. However, bitterness plays a significant role for plants. It gives a signal that certain plant is (10) …………….. For human beings, different person carries various genetic abilities of tasting bitterness. According to a scientist at the University of Utah, (11) ……………… have exceptionally plenty of (12) ………………… which allows them to perceive bitter compounds. Questions 13-14 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 13. What is the main feature of AMP according to this passage? A offset bitter flavour in food B only exist in 304 cup C tastes like citrus D chemical reaction when meets biscuit 14. What is the main function of G protein? A collecting taste molecule B identifying different flavors elements C resolving large molecules D transmitting bitter signals to the brain The Dinosaurs Footprints and Extinction A EVERYBODY knows that the dinosaurs were killed by an asteroid. Something big hit the earth 65 million years ago and, when the dust had fallen, so had the great reptiles. There is thus a nice if ironic, symmetry in the idea that a similar impact brought about the dinosaurs’ rise. That is the thesis proposed by Paul Olsen, of Columbia University, and his colleagues in this week’s Science. B Dinosaurs first appeared in the fossil record 230m years ago, during the Triassic period. But they were mostly small, and they shared the earth with lots of other sorts of reptile. It was in the subsequent Jurassic, which began 202 million years ago, that they overran the planet and turned into the monsters depicted in the book and movie “Jurassic Park”. (Actually, though, the dinosaurs that appeared on screen were from the still more recent Cretaceous period.) Dr Olsen and his colleagues are not the first to suggest that the dinosaurs inherited the earth as the result of an asteroid strike. But they are the first to show that the takeover did, indeed, happen in a geological eyeblink. C Dinosaur skeletons are rare. Dinosaur footprints are, however, surprisingly abundant. And the sizes of the prints are as good an indication of the sizes of the beasts as are the skeletons themselves. Dr Olsen and his colleagues, therefore, concentrated on prints, not bones. D The prints in question were made in eastern North America, a part of the world the full of rift valleys to those in East Africa today. Like the modern African rift valleys, the Triassic/Jurassic American ones contained lakes, and these lakes grew and shrank at regular intervals because of climatic changes caused by periodic shifts in the earth’s orbit. (A similar phenomenon is responsible for modern ice ages.) That regularity, combined with reversals in the earth’s magnetic field, which are detectable in the tiny fields of certain magnetic minerals, means that rocks from this place and period can be dated to within a few thousand years. As a bonus, squishy lake-edge sediments are just the things for recording the tracks of passing animals. By dividing the labour between themselves, the ten authors of the paper were able to study such tracks at 80 sites. E The researchers looked at 18 so-called ichnotaxa. These are recognizable types of the footprint that cannot be matched precisely with the species of animal that left them. But they can be matched with a general sort of animal, and thus act as an indicator of the fate of that group, even when there are no bones to tell the story. Five of the ichnotaxa disappear before the end of the Triassic, and four march confidently across the boundary into the Jurassic. Six, however, vanish at the boundary, or only just splutter across it; and there appear from nowhere, almost as soon as the Jurassic begins. F That boundary itself is suggestive. The first geological indication of the impact that killed the dinosaurs was an unusually high level of iridium in rocks at the end of the Cretaceous when the beasts disappear from the fossil record. Iridium is normally rare at the earth’s surface, but it is more abundant in meteorites. When people began to believe the impact theory, they started looking for other Cretaceous-and anomalies. One that turned up was a surprising abundance of fern spores in rocks just above the boundary layer – a phenomenon known as a “fern spike”. G That matched the theory nicely. Many modern ferns are opportunists. They cannot compete against plants with leaves, but if a piece of land is cleared by, say, a volcanic eruption, they are often the first things to set up shop there. An asteroid strike would have scoured much of the earth of its vegetable cover, and provided a paradise for ferns. A fern spike in the rocks is thus a good indication that something terrible has happened. H Both an iridium anomaly and a fern spike appear in rocks at the end of the Triassic, too. That accounts for the disappearing ichnotaxa: the creatures that made them did not survive the holocaust. The surprise is how rapidly the new ichnotaxa appear. I Dr Olsen and his colleagues suggest that the explanation for this rapid increase in size may be a phenomenon called ecological release. This is seen today when reptiles (which, in modern times, tend to be small creatures) reach islands where they face no competitors. The most spectacular example is on the Indonesian island of Komodo, where local lizards have grown so large that they are often referred to as dragons. The dinosaurs, in other words, could flourish only when the competition had been knocked out. J That leaves the question of where the impact happened. No large hole in the earth’s crust seems to be 202m years old. It may, of course, have been overlooked. Old craters are eroded and buried, and not always easy to find. Alternatively, it may have vanished. Although the continental crust is more or less permanent, the ocean floor is constantly recycled by the tectonic processes that bring about continental drift. There is no ocean floor left that is more than 200m years old, so a crater that formed in the ocean would have been swallowed up by now. K There is a third possibility, however. This is that the crater is known, but has been misdated. The Manicouagan “structure”, a crater in Quebec, is thought to be 214m years old. It is huge – some 100km across – and seems to be the largest of between three and five craters that formed within a few hours of each other as the lumps of a disintegrated comet hit the earth one by one. Questions 15-20 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In boxes 15-20 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 15. Dr Paul Olsen and his colleagues believe that asteroid knock may also lead to dinosaurs’ boom. 16. Books and movie like Jurassic Park often exaggerate the size of the dinosaurs. 17. Dinosaur footprints are more adequate than dinosaur skeletons. 18. The prints were chosen by Dr Olsen to study because they are more detectable than the earth magnetic field to track the date of geological precise within thousands of years. 19. Ichnotaxa showed that footprints of dinosaurs offer exact information of the trace left by an individual species. 20. We can find more Iridium in the earth’s surface than in meteorites. Questions 21-27 Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage. Using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the Reading Passage for each answer. Dr Olsen and his colleagues applied a phenomenon named (21) …………….. to explain the large size of the Eubrontes, which is a similar case to that nowadays reptiles invade a place where there are no (22) ………………….. for example, on an island called Komodo, indigenous huge lizards grow so big that people even regarding them as (23) …………………. However, there were no old impact trace being found? The answer may be that we have (24) ………………….. the evidence. Old craters are difficult to spot or it probably (25) …………………. Due to the effect of the earth moving. Even a crater formed in Ocean had been (26) …………………. under the impact of crust movement. Besides, the third hypothesis is that the potential evidence – some craters maybe (27) ……………….. A leap into history A. Between the Inishowen peninsula, north west of Derry, and the Glens of Antrim, in the east beyond the Sperrin Mountains, is found some of Western Europe’s most captivating and alluring landscape. B. The Roe Valley Park, some 15 miles east of Derry is a prime example. The Park, like so many Celtic places, is steeped in history and legend. As the Roc trickles down through heather bogs in the Sperrin Mountains to the South, it is a river by the time it cuts through what was once called the ‘garden of the soul’ – in Celtic ‘Gortenanima’. C. The castle of O’Cahan once stood here and a number of houses which made up the town of Limavady. The town takes its name from the legend of a dog leaping into the river Roe carrying a message, or perhaps chasing a stag. This is a wonderful place, where the water traces its way through rock and woodland; at times, lingering in brooding pools of dark cool water under the shade of summer trees, and, at others, forming weirs and leads for water mills now long gone. D. The Roe, like all rivers, is witness to history and change. To Mullagh Hill, on the west bank of the River Roe just outside the present day town of Limavady, St Columba came in 575 AD for the Convention of Drumceatt. The world is probably unaware that it knows something of Limavady; but the town is, in fact, renowned for Jane Ross’s song Danny Roy, written to a tune once played by a tramp in the street. Limavady tow n itself and many of the surrounding villages have Celtic roots but no one knows for sure just how old the original settlement of Limavady is. E. Some 30 miles along the coast road from Limavady, one comes upon the forlorn, but imposing ruin of Dunluce Castle, which stands on a soft basalt outcrop, in defiance of the turbulent Atlantic lashing it on all sides. The jagged­-toothed ruins sit proud on their rock top commanding the coastline to east and west. The only connection to the mainland is by a narrow bridge. Until the kitchen court fell into the sea in 1639 killing several servants, the castle was fully inhabited. In the next hundred years or so, the structure gradually fell into its present dramatic state of disrepair, stripped of its roofs by wind and weather and robbed by man of its caned stonework. Ruined and forlorn its aspect may­be yet, in the haunting Celtic twilight of the long summer evenings, it is redolent of another age, another dream. F. A mile or so to the east of the castle lies Port na Spaniagh, where the Neapolitan Galleas, Girona, from the Spanish Armada went down one dark October night in 1588 on its way to Scotland, of the 1500-odd men on board, nine survived. G. Even further to the east, is the Giant’s Causeway stunning coastline with strangely symmetrical columns of dark basalt – a beautiful geological wonder. Someone once said of the Causeway that it was worth seeing, but not worth going to see. That was in thê days of horses and carriages, when travelling was difficult. But it is certainly well worth a visit. The last lingering moments of the twilight hours are the best lime to savour the full power of the coastline s magic; the time when the place comes into its own. The tourists are gone and if you are very lucky you will be alone. A fine circular walk will take you down to the Grand Causeway, past amphitheatres of stone columns and formations. It is not frightening, but there is a power in the place – tangible, yet inexplicable. The blackness of some nights conjure up feelings of eeriness and unease. The visitor realises his place in the scheme of the magnificent spectacle. Once experienced, it is impossible to forget the grandeur of the landscape. H. Beyond the Causeway, connecting the mainland with an outcrop of rock jutting out of the turbulent Atlantic, is the Carrick-a-Rede Rope Bridge, when first constructed, the bridge was a simple rope handrail with widely spaced slats which was used mainly by salmon fishermen needing to travel from the island to the mainland. In time, the single handrail was replaced with a more sturdy caged bridge, however, it is still not a crossing for the faint- hearted. The Bridge swings above a chasm of rushing, foaming water that seems to drag the unwary- down, and away. Many visitors who make the walk one way are unable to return resulting in them being taken off the island by boat. Questions 28-32 Looking at the following list of places (Questions 28–32) from the paragraphs A-E of reading passage 3 and their locations on the map. Match each place with its location on the map. Write your answers m boxes 28-32 on your answer sheet. 28. The Sperrin Mountains 29. Dunluce Castle 30. Inishowen 31. The Glens of Antrim 32. Limavady Questions 33-38 Do the following statements reflect the claims of the writer in Reading Passage? In boxes 33-38 on your answer sheet write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 33. After 1639, the castle of Dunluce was not completely uninhabited. 34. For the author, Dunluce Castle evokes another period of history. 35. There were more than 1500 men on die Girona when it went down. 36. The writer believes that the Giant’s Causeway is worth going to visit. 37. The author recommends twilight as the best time to visit the Giant’s Causeway. 38. The more study cage added to the Carrick-a-Rede Rope Bridge has helped to increase the number of visitors to the area. Questions 39-40 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 39. The writer feels that the Giant’s Causeway is A an unsettling place. B a relaxing place. C a boring place. D an exciting place. 40. Which of the following would be a good title for the passage? A The Roe Valley Park. B The Giant’s Causeway. C Going East to West. D A leap into history. Answers 1. B 2. I 3. C 4. E 5. G 6. H 7. A 8. D 9. Naringin 10. Poisonous 11. Supertasters 12. Tastebuds 13. A 14. D 15. Yes 16. Not given 17. Yes 18. Not given 19. No 20. No 21. Ecological release 22. Competitors 23. Dragons 24. Overlooked 25. (have) vanished 26. Swallowed up 27. Misdated 28. E 29. C 30. A 31. D 32. B 33. Not given 34. Yes 35. Yes 36. Yes 37. Yes 38. Not given 39. A 40. D

The Dead Sea Scrolls In late 1946 or early 1947, three Bedouin teenagers were tending their goats and sheep near the ancient settlement of Qumran, located on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea in what is now known as the West Bank. One of these young shepherds tossed a rock into an opening on the side of a cliff and was surprised to hear a shattering sound. He and his companions later entered the cave and stumbled across a collection of large clay jars, seven of which contained scrolls with writing on them. The teenagers took the seven scrolls to a nearby town where they were sold for a small sum to a local antiquities dealer. Word of the find spread, and Bedouins and archaeologists eventually unearthed tens of thousands of additional scroll fragments from 10 nearby caves; together they make up between 800 and 900 manuscripts. It soon became clear that this was one of the greatest archaeological discoveries ever made. The origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which were written around 2,000 years ago between 150 BCE and 70 CE, is still the subject of scholarly debate even today. According to the prevailing theory, they are the work of a population that inhabited the area until Roman troops destroyed the settlement around 70 CE. The area was known as Judea at that time, and the people are thought to have belonged to a group called the Essenes, a devout Jewish sect. The majority of the texts on the Dead Sea Scrolls are in Hebrew, with some fragments written in an ancient version of its alphabet thought to have fallen out of use in the fifth century BCE. Bu’ there are other languages as well. Some scrolls are in Aramaic, the language spoken by many inhabitants of the region from the sixth century BCE to the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. In addition, several texts feature translations of the Hebrew Bible into Greek. The Dead Sea Scrolls include fragments from every book of the Old Testament of the Bible except for the Book of Esther. The only entire book of the Hebrew Bible preserved among the manuscripts from Qumran is Isaiah; this copy, dated to the first century BCE, is considered the earliest biblical manuscript still in existence. Along with biblical texts, the scrolls include documents about sectarian regulations and religious writings that do not appear in the Old Testament. The writing on the Dead Sea Scrolls is mostly in black or occasionally red ink, and the scrolls themselves are nearly all made of either parchment (animal skin) or an early form of paper called ‘papyrus’. The only exception is the scroll numbered 3Q15, which was created out of a combination of copper and tin. Known as the Copper Scroll, this curious document features letters chiselled onto metal – perhaps, as some have theorized, to better withstand the passage of time. One of the most intriguing manuscripts from Qumran, this is a sort of ancient treasure map that lists dozens of gold and silver caches. Using an unconventional vocabulary and odd spelling, it describes 64 underground hiding places that supposedly contain riches buried for safekeeping. None of these hoards have been recovered, possibly because the Romans pillaged Judea during the first century CE. According to various hypotheses, the treasure belonged to local people, or was rescued from the Second Temple before its destruction or never existed to begin with. Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls have been on interesting journeys. In 1948, a Syrian Orthodox archbishop known as Mar Samuel acquired four of the original seven scrolls from a Jerusalem shoemaker and part-time antiquity dealer, paying less than $100 for them. He then travelled to the United States and unsuccessfully offered them to a number of universities, including Yale. Finally, in 19M, he placed an advertisement in the business newspaper The Wall Street Journal’ – under the category ‘Miscellaneous Items for Sale’ – that read: ‘Biblical Manuscripts : dating back to at least 200 B.C. are for sale. This would be an ideal gift to an educational or religious institution by an individual or group.’ Fortunately, Israeli archaeologist and statesman Yigael Yadin negotiated their purchase and brought the scrolls back to Jerusalem, where they remain to this day. In 2017, researchers from the University of Haifa restored and deciphered one of the last untranslated scrolls. The university’s Eshbal Ratson and Jonathan Ben-Dov spent one year reassembling the 60 fragments that make up the scroll. Deciphered from a band of coded text on parchment, the find provides insight into the community of people who wrote it and the 364-day calendar they would have used. The scroll names celebrations that indicate shifts in seasons and details two yearly religious events known from another Dead Sea Scroll. Only one more known scroll remains untranslated. Questions 1-5 Complete the notes below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. The Dead Sea Scrolls Discovery Qumran, 1946/7 • three Bedouin shepherds in their teens were near an opening on side of cliff • heard a noise of breaking when one teenager threw a (1) ……………………. • teenagers went into the (2) …………………. and found a number of containers made of (3) ……………….. The scrolls • date from between 150 BCE and 70 CE • thought to have been written by group of people known as the (4) …………………. • written mainly in the (5) …………………. language • most are on religious topics, written using ink on parchment or papyrus Questions 6-13 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In boxes 6-13 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 6. The Bedouin teenagers who found the scrolls were disappointed by how little money they received for them. 7. There is agreement among academics about the origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls. 8. Most of the books of the Bible written on the scrolls are incomplete. 9. The information on the Copper Scroll is written in an unusual way. 10. Mar Samuel was given some of the scrolls as a gift. 11. In the early 1950s, a number of educational establishments in the US were keen to buy scrolls from Mar Samuel. 12. The scroll that was pieced together in 2017 contains information about annual occasions in the Qumran area 2.000 yea-s ago. 13. Academics at the University of Haifa are currently researching how to decipher the final scroll. A second attempt at domesticating the tomato A It took at least 3,000 years for humans to learn how to domesticate the wild tomato and cultivate it for food. Now two separate teams in Brazil and China have done it all over again in less than three years. And they have done it better in some ways, as the re-domesticated tomatoes are more nutritious than the ones we eat at present. This approach relies on the revolutionary CRISPR genome editing technique, in which changes are deliberately made to the DNA of a living cell, allowing genetic material to be added, removed or altered. The technique could not only improve existing crops, but could also be used to turn thousands of wild plants into useful and appealing foods. In fact, a third team in the US has already begun to do this with a relative of the tomato called the groundcherry. This fast-track domestication could help make the world’s food supply healthier and far more resistant to diseases, such as the ‘us fungus devastating wheat crops. ‘This could transform what we eat,’ says Jo-g Kudla at the University of Munster in Germany, a member of the Brazilian team. ‘There are 50,000 edible plants in the world, but 90 percent of our energy comes from just 15 crops.’ ‘We can now mimic the known domestication course of major crops like rice, maize, sorghum or others,’ says Caixia Gao of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing. ‘Then we might try to domesticate plants that have never been domesticated.’ B Wild tomatoes, which, are native to the Andes region in South America, produce pea-sized fruits. many generations, peoples such as the Aztecs and Incas transformed the pint by selecting and breeding plants with mutations in their genetic structure, which resulted in desirable traits such as larger fruit. But every time a single plant with a mutation is taken from a larger population for breeding, much genetic diversity is lost. And sometimes the desirable mutations come with less desirable traits. For instance, the tomato strains grown for supermarkets have lost much of their flavour. By comparing the genomes of modern plants to those of their wild relatives, biologists have been working out what genetic changes occurred as plants were domesticated. The teams in Brazil and China have now used this knowledge to reintroduce these changes from scratch while maintaining or even enhancing the desirable traits of wild strains. C Kudla’s team made six changes altogether. For instance, they tripled the size of fruit by editing a gene called FRUIT WEIGHT, and increased the number of tomatoes per truss by editing another called MULTIFLORA. While the historical domestication of tomatoes reduced levels of the red pigment lycopene – thought to have potential health benefits – the team in Brazil managed to boost it instead. The wild tomato has twice as much lycopene as cultivated ones; the newly domesticated one has five times as much. ‘They are quite tasty,’ says Kudla. ‘A little bit strong. And very aromatic.’ The team in China re-domesticated several strains of wild tomatoes with desirable traits lost in domesticated tomatoes. In this way they managed to create a strain resistant to a common disease called bacterial spot race, which can devastate yields. They also created another strain that is more salt tolerant – and has higher levels of vitamin C. D Meanwhile, Joyce Van Eck at the Boyce Thompson Institute in New York state decided to use the same approach to domesticate the groundcherry or goldenberry (Physalis pruinosa) for the first time. This fruit looks similar to the closely related Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana). Groundcherries are already sold to a limited extent in the US but they are hard to produce because the plant has a sprawling growth habit and the small fruits fall off the branches when ripe. Van Ecks team has edited the plants to increase fruit size, make their growth more compact and to stop fruits dropping. ‘There’s potential for this to be a commercial e^,’ says Van Eck. But she adds that taking the work further would be expensive because of the need to pay for a licence for the CRISPR technology and get regulatory approval. E This approach could boost the use of many obscure plants, says Jonathan Jones of the Sainsbury Lab in the UK. But it will be hard for new foods to grow so popular with farmers and consumers that they become new staple crops, he thinks. The three teams already have their eye on other plants that could be ‘catapulted into the mainstream’, including foxtail, oat-grass and cowpea. By choosing wild plants that are drought or heat tolerant, says Gao, we could create crops that will thrive even as the planet warms. But Kudla didn’t want to reveal which species were in his team’s sights, because CRISPR has made the process so easy. ‘Any one with the right skills could go to their lab and do this.’ Questions 14-18 Reading Passage has five sections, A-E. Which section contains the following information? Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet. NB You may use any letter more than once. 14. a reference to a type of tomato that can resist a dangerous infection 15. an explanation of how problems can arise from focusing only on a certain type of tomato plant. 16. a number of examples of plants that are not cultivated at present but could be useful as food sources 17. a comparison between the early domestication of the tomato and more recent research 18. a personal reaction to the flavour of a tomato that has been genetically edited Questions 19-23 Look at the following statements (Questions 19-23) and the list of researchers below. Match each statement with the correct researcher, A-D. Write the correct letter, A-D, in boxes 19-23 on your answer sheet. NB You may use any letter more than once. 19. Domestication of certain plants could allow them to adapt to future environmental challenges. 20. The idea of growing and eating unusual plants may not be accepted on a large scale. 21. It is not advisable for the future direction of certain research to be made public. 22. Present efforts to domesticate one wild fruit are limited by the costs involved. 23. Humans only make use of a small proportion of the plant food available on Earth. List of Researchers A Jorg Kudla B Caixia Gao C Joyce Van Eck D Jonathan Jones Questions 24-26 Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 24-26 on your answer sheet. 24. An undesirable trait such as loss of …………………. may be caused by a mutation in a tomato gene. 25. By modifying one gene in a tomato plant, researchers made the tomato three times its original …………… 26. A type of tomato which was not badly affected by …………………… and was rich in vitamin C, was produced by a team of researchers in China. Insight or evolution? Two scientists consider the origins of discoveries and other innovative behavior Scientific discovery is popularly believed to result from the sheer genius of such intellectual stars as naturalist Charles Darwin and theoretical physicist Albert Einstein. Our view of such unique contributions to science often disregards the person’s prior experience and the efforts of their lesser-known predecessors. Conventional wisdom also places great weight on insight in promoting breakthrough scientific achievements, as if ideas spontaneously pop into someone’s head – fully formed and functional. There may be some limited truth to this view. However, we believe that it largely misrepresents the real nature of scientific discovery, as well as that of creativity and innovation in many other realms of human endeavor. Setting aside such greats as Darwin and Einstein – whose monumental contributions are duly celebrated – we suggest that innovation is more a process of trial and error, where two steps forward may sometimes come with one step back, as well as one or more steps to the right or left. This evolutionary view of human innovation undermines the notion of creative genius and recognizes the cumulative nature of scientific progress. Consider one unheralded scientist John Nicholson, a mathematical physicist working in the 1910s who postulated the existence of ‘proto-elements’ in outer space. By combining different numbers of weights of these proto-elements’ atoms, Nicholson could recover the weights of all the elements in the then-known periodic table. These successes are all the more noteworthy given the fact that Nicholson was wrong about the presence of proto-elements: they do not actually exist. Yet, amid his often fanciful theories and wild speculations, Nicholson also proposed a novel theory about the structure of atoms. Niels Bohr, the Nobel prize-winning father of modern atomic theory, jumped off from this interesting idea to conceive his now-famous model of the atom. What are we to make of this story? One might simply conclude that science is a collective and cumulative enterprise. That may be true, but there may be a deeper insight to be gleaned. We propose that science is constantly evolving, much as species of animals do. In biological systems, organisms may display new characteristics that result from random genetic mutations. In the same way, random, arbitrary or accidental mutations of ideas may help pave the way for advances in science. If mutations prove beneficial, then the animal or the scientific theory will continue to thrive and perhaps reproduce. Support for this evolutionary view of behavioral innovation comes from many domains. Consider one example of an influential innovation in US horseracing. The so-called ‘acey-deucy’ stirrup placement, in which the rider’s foot in his left stirrup is placed as much as 25 centimeters lower than the right, is believed to confer important speed advantages when turning on oval tracks. It was developed by a relatively unknown jockey named Jackie Westrope. Had Westrope conducted methodical investigations or examined extensive film records in a shrewd plan to outrun his rivals? Had he foreseen the speed advantage that would be conferred by riding acey-deucy? No. He suffered a leg injury, which left him unable to fully bend his left knee. His modification just happened to coincide with enhanced left-hand turning performance. This led to the rapid and widespread adoption of riding acey-deucy by many riders, a racing style which continues in today’s thoroughbred racing. Plenty of other stories show that fresh advances can arise from error, misadventure, and also pure serendipity – a happy accident. For example, in the early 1970s, two employees of the company 3M each had a problem: Spencer Silver had a product – a glut which was only slightly sticky – and no use for it, while his colleague Art Fry was trying to figure out how to affix temporary bookmarks in his hymn book without damaging its pages. The solution to both these problems was the invention of the brilliantly simple yet phenomenally successful Post-It note. Such examples give lie to the claim that ingenious, designing minds are responsible for human creativity and invention. Far more banal and mechanical forces may be at work; forces that are fundamentally connected to the laws of science. The notions of insight, creativity and genius are often invoked, but they remain vague and of doubtful scientific utility, especially when one considers the diverse and enduring contributions of individuals such as Plato, Leonardo da Vinci, Shakespeare, Beethoven, Galileo, Newton, Kepler, Curie, Pasteur and Edison. These notions merely label rather than explain the evolution of human innovations. We need another approach, and there is a promising candidate. The Law of Effect was advanced by psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1898, some 40 years after Charles Darwin published his ground breaking work on biological evolution, On the Origin of Species. This simple law holds that organisms tend to repeat successful behaviors and to refrain from performing unsuccessful ones. Just like Darwin’s Law of Natural Selection, the Law of Effect involves a entirely mechanical process of variation and selection, without any end objective in sight. Of course, the origin of human innovation demands much further study. In particular, the provenance of the raw material on which the Law of Effect operates is not as clearly known as that of the genetic mutations on which the Law of Natural Selection operates. The generation of novel ideas and behaviors may not be entirely random, but constrained by prior successes and failures – of the current individual (such as Bohr) or of predecessors (such as Nicholson). The time seems right for abandoning the naive notions of intelligent design and genius, and for scientifically exploring the true origins of creative behavior. Questions 27-31 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 27. The purpose of the first paragraph is to A defend particular ideas. B compare certain beliefs. C disprove a widely held view. D outline a common assumption. 28 What are the writers doing in the second A criticising an opinion B justifying a standpoint C explaining an approach D supporting an argument 29. In the third paragraph, what do the writers suggest about Darwin and Einstein? A They represent an exception to a general rule. B Their way of working has been misunderstood. C They are an ideal which others should aspire to. D Their achievements deserve greater recognition. 30. John Nicholson is an example of a person whose idea A established his reputation as an influential scientist. B was only fully understood at a later point in history. C laid the foundation for someone else’s breakthrough. D initially met with scepticism from the scientific community. 31. What is the key point of interest about the ‘acey-deucy’ stirrup placement? A the simple reason why it was invented B the enthusiasm with which it was adopted C the research that went into its development D the cleverness of the person who first used it Questions 32-36 Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage? In boxes 32-36 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 32. Acknowledging people such as Plato or da Vinci as geniuses will help us understand the process by which great minds create new ideas. 33. The Law of Effect was discovered at a time when psychologies were seeking a scientific reason why creativity occurs. 34. The Law of Effect states that no planning is involved in the behaviour of organisms. 35. The Law of Effect sets out clear explanations about sources of new ideas and behaviours. 36. Many scientists are now turning away from the notion of intelligent design and genius. Questions 37-40 Complete the summary using the list of words, A-G, below. Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet. The origins of creative behaviour The traditional view of scientific discovery is that breakthroughs happen when a single great mind has sudden (37) ………………….. Although this can occur, it is not often the case. Advances are more likely to be the result of a longer process. In some cases, this process involves (38) ………………… , such as Nicholson’s theory about proto-elements. In others, simple necessity may provoke innovation, as with Westrope’s decision to modify the position of his riding stirrups. There is also often an element of (39) …………………….. , for example, the coincidence of ideas that led to the invention of the Post-It note. With both the Law of Natural Selection and the Law of Effect, there may be no clear (40) …………………….. involved, but merely a process of variation and selection. A invention B goals C compromise D mistakes E luck F inspiration G experiments Answers 1. Rock 2. Cave 3. Clay 4. Essenes 5. Hebrew 6. Not given 7. False 8. True 9. True 10. False 11. False 12. True 13. Not given 14. C 15. B 16. E 17. A 18. C 19. B 20. D 21. A 22. C 23. A 24. Falvour/ flavor 25. Size 26. Salt 27. D 28. A 29. A 30. C 31. A 32. No 33. Not given 34. Yes 35. No 36. Not given 37. F 38. D 39. E 40. B

ALBERT EINSTEIN Albert Einstein is perhaps the best-known scientist of the 20th century. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 and his theories of special and general relativity are of great importance to many branches of physics and astronomy. He is well known for his theories about light, matter, gravity, space and time. His most famous idea is that energy and mass are different forms of the same thing. Einstein was born in Wurttemberg, Germany on 14th March 1879. His family was Jewish but he had not been very religious in his youth although he became very interested in Judaism in later life. It is well documented that Einstein did not begin speaking until after the age of three. In fact, he found speaking so difficult that his family were worried that he would never start to speak. When Einstein was four years old, his father gave him a magnetic compass. It was this compass that inspired him to explore the world of science. He wanted to understand why the needle always pointed north whichever way he turned the compass. It looked as if the needle was moving itself. But the needle was inside a closed case, so no other force (such as the wind) could have been moving it. And this is how Einstein became interested in studying science and mathematics. In fact, he was so clever that at the age of 12 he taught himself Euclidean geometry. At fifteen, he went to school in Munich which he found very boring. he finished secondary school in Aarau, Switzerland and entered the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich from which he graduated in 1900. But Einstein did not like the teaching there either. He often missed classes and used the time to study physics on his own or to play the violin instead. However, he was able to pass his examinations by studying the notes of a classmate. His teachers did not have a good opinion of him and refused to recommend him for a university position. So, he got a job in a patent office in Switzerland. While he was working there, he wrote the papers that first made him famous as a great scientist. Einstein had two severely disabled children with his first wife, Mileva. His daughter (whose name we do not know) was born about a year before their marriage in January 1902. She was looked after by her Serbian grandparents until she died at the age of two. It is generally believed that she died from scarlet fever but there are those who believe that she may have suffered from a disorder known as Down Syndrome. But there is not enough evidence to know for sure. In fact, no one even knew that she had existed until Einstein’s granddaughter found 54 love letters that Einstein and Mileva had written to each other between 1897 and 1903. She found these letters inside a shoe box in their attic in California. Einstein and Mileva’s son, Eduard, was diagnosed with schizophrenia. He spent decades in hospitals and died in Zurich in 1965. Just before the start of World War I, Einstein moved back to Germany and became director of a school there. But in 1933, following death threats from the Nazis, he moved to the United States, where he died on 18th April 1955. Questions 1-8 Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text? For questions 1-8, write: TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 1. The general theory of relativity is a very important theory in modern physics. 2. Einstein had such difficulty with language that those around him thought he would never learn how to speak. 3. It seemed to Einstein that nothing could be pushing the needle of the compass around except the wind. 4. Einstein enjoyed the teaching methods in Switzerland. 5. Einstein taught himself how to play the violin. 6. His daughter died of schizophrenia when she was two. 7. The existence of a daughter only became known to the world between 1897 and 1903. 8. In 1933 Einstein moved to the United States where he became an American citizen. Questions 9-10 Complete the sentences below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the text for each answer. He tried hard to understand how the needle could seem to move itself so that it always (9)………………. He often did not go to classes and used the time to study physics (10)…………………..or to play music. Questions 11-13 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 11. The name of Einstein’s daughter A was not chosen by him. B is a mystery. C is shared by his granddaughter. D was discovered in a shoe box. 12. His teachers would not recommend him for a university position because A they did not think highly of him. B they thought he was a Nazi. C his wife was Serbian. D he seldom skipped classes. 13. The famous physicist Albert Einstein was of A Swiss origin. B Jewish origin. C American origin. D Austrian origin. DRINKING FILTERED WATER A The body is made up mainly of water. This means that the quality of water that we drink every day has an important effect on our health. Filtered water is healthier than tap water and some bottled water. This is because it is free of contaminants, that is, of substances that make it dirty or harmful. Substances that settle on the bottom of a glass of tap water and microorganisms that carry diseases (known as bacteria or germs) are examples of contaminants. Filtered water is also free of poisonous metals and chemicals that are common in tap water and even in some bottled water brands. B The authorities know that normal tap water is full of contaminants and they use chemicals, such as chlorine and bromine in order to disinfect it. But such chemicals are hardly safe. Indeed, their use in water is associated with many different conditions and they are particularly dangerous for children and pregnant women. For example, consuming bromine for a long time may result in low blood pressure, which may then bring about poisoning of the brain, heart, kidneys and liver. Filtered water is typically free of such water disinfectant chemicals. C Filtered water is also free of metals, such as mercury and lead. Mercury has ended up in our drinking water mainly because the dental mixtures used by dentists have not been disposed of safely for a long time. Scientists believe there is a connection between mercury in the water and many allergies and cancers as well as disorders, such as ADD, OCD, autism and depression. D Lead, on the other hand, typically finds its way to our drinking water due to pipe leaks. Of course, modern pipes are not made of lead but pipes in old houses usually are. Lead is a well-known carcinogen and is associated with pregnancy problems and birth defects. This is another reason why children and pregnant women must drink filtered water. E The benefits of water are well known. We all know, for example, that it helps to detoxify the body, So, the purer the water we drink, the easier it is for the body to rid itself of toxins. The result of drinking filtered water is that the body does not have to use as much of its energy on detoxification as it would when drinking unfiltered water. This means that drinking filtered water is good for our health in general. That is because the body can perform all of its functions much more easily and this results in improved metabolism, better weight management, improved joint lubrication as well as efficient skin hydration. F There are many different ways to filter water and each type of filter targets different contaminants. For example, activated carbon water filters are very good at taking chlorine out. Ozone water filters, on the other hand, are particularly effective at removing germs. G For this reason, it is very important to know exactly what is in the water that we drink so that we can decide what type of water filter to use. A Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) should be useful for this purpose. This is a certificate that is issued by public water suppliers every year, listing the contaminants present in the water. If you know what these contaminants are, then it is easier to decide which type of water filter to get. Questions 14-20 The text has seven paragraphs, A-G. Which paragraph contains the following information? 14. a short summary of the main points of the text 15. a variety of methods used for water filtration 16. making it easier for the body to get rid of dangerous chemicals 17. finding out which contaminants your water filter should target 18. allergies caused by dangerous metals 19. a dangerous metal found in the plumbing of old buildings 20. chemicals of cleaning products that destroy bacteria Questions 21-26 Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text? For questions 21-26, write: TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 21. The type of water you consume on a regular basis has a great impact on your overall health and wellness. 22. Filtered water typically contains water disinfectant chemicals. 23. Exposure to disinfectant chemicals is linked with poisoning of the vital organs. 24. Drinking tap water helps minimise your exposure to harmful elements. 25. People wearing artificial teeth are more likely to be contaminated. 26. People who are depressed often suffer from dehydration. SPEECH DYSFLUENCY AND POPULAR FILLERS A speech dysfluency is any of various breaks, irregularities or sound-filled pauses that we make when we are speaking, which are commonly known as fillers. These include words and sentences that are not finished, repeated phrases or syllables, instances of speakers correcting their own mistakes as they speak and “words” such as ‘huh’, ‘uh’, ‘erm’, ‘urn’, ‘hmm’, ‘err’, ‘like’, ‘you know’ and ‘well’. Fillers are parts of speech which are not generally recognised as meaningful and they include speech problems, such as stuttering (repeating the first consonant of some words). Fillers are normally avoided on television and films, but they occur quite regularly in everyday conversation, sometimes making up more than 20% of “words” in speech. But they can also be used as a pause for thought. Research in linguistics has shown that fillers change across cultures and that even the different English speaking nations use different fillers. For example, Americans use pauses such as ‘um’ or ’em’ whereas the British say ‘uh’ or ‘eh’. Spanish speakers say ‘ehhh’ and in Latin America (where they also speak Spanish) but not Spain, ‘este’ is used (normally meaning ‘this’). Recent linguistic research has suggested that the use of ‘uh’ and ‘um’ in English is connected to the speaker’s mental and emotional state. For example, while pausing to say ‘uh’ or ‘um’ the brain may be planning the use of future words. According to the University of Pennsylvania linguist Mark Liberman, ‘um’ generally comes before a longer or more important pause than ‘uh’. At least that’s what he used to think. Liberman has discovered that as Americans get older, they use ‘uh’ more than ‘um’ and that men use ‘uh’ more than women no matter their age. But the opposite is true of ‘um’. The young say ‘um’ more often than the old. And women say ‘um’ more often than men at every age. This was an unexpected result because scientists used to think that fillers had to do more with the amount of time a speaker pauses for, rather than with who the speaker is. Liberman mentioned his finding to fellow linguists in the Netherlands and this encouraged the group to look for a pattern outside American English. They studied British and Scottish English, German, Danish, Dutch and Norwegian and found that women and younger people said ‘um’ more than ‘uh’ in those languages as well. Their conclusion is that it is simply a case of language change in progress and that women and younger people are leading the change. And there is nothing strange about this. Women and young people normally are the typical pioneers of most language change. What is strange, however, is that ‘um’ is replacing ‘uh’ across at least two continents and five Germanic languages. Now this really is a mystery. The University of Edinburgh sociolinguist Josef Fruehwald may have an answer. In his view, ‘um’ and ‘uh’ are pretty much equivalent. The fact that young people and women prefer it is not significant. This often happens in language when there are two options. People start using one more often until the other is no longer an option. It’s just one of those things. As to how such a trend might have gone from one language to another, there is a simple explanation, according to Fruehwald. English is probably influencing the other languages. We all know that in many countries languages are constantly borrowing words and expressions of English into their own language so why not borrow fillers, too? Of course, we don’t know for a fact whether that’s actually what’s happening with ‘um’ but it is a likely story. Questions 27-34 Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text? For questions 27-34, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 27. Fillers are usually expressed as pauses and probably have no linguistic meaning although they may have a purpose. 28. In general, fillers vary across cultures. 29. Fillers are uncommon in everyday language. 30. American men use ‘uh’ more than American women do. 31. Younger Spaniards say ‘ehhh’ more often than older Spaniards. 32. In the past linguists did not think that fillers are about the amount of time a speaker hesitates. 33. During a coffee break Liberman was chatting with a small group of researchers. 34. Fruehwald does not believe that there are age and gender differences related to ‘um’ and ‘uh’. Questions 35-40 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 35. Fillers are not A used to give the speaker time to think. B phrases that are restated. C used across cultures. D popular with the media. 36. It had originally seemed to Mark Liberman that A ‘um’ was followed by a less significant pause than ‘uh’. B ‘uh’ was followed by a shorter pause than ‘um’. C ‘uh’ was followed by a longer pause than ‘um’. D the use of ‘um’ meant the speaker was sensitive. 37. Contrary to what linguists used to think, it is now believed that the choice of filler A may have led to disagreements. B depends on the characteristics of the speaker. C has nothing to do with sex. D only matters to older people. 38. According to Liberman, it’s still a puzzle why A a specific language change is so widely spread. B the two fillers are comparable. C we have two options. D ‘um’ is preferred by women and young people. 39. Concerning the normal changes that all languages go through as time goes by, A old men are impossible to teach. B men in general are very conservative. C young men simply copy the speech of young women. D women play a more important role than men. 40. According to Fruehwald, the fact that ‘um’ is used more than ‘uh’ A proves that ‘um’ is less important. B shows that young people have low standards. C shows that they have different meanings. D is just a coincidence. Hide Answers 1. True 2. True 3. False 4. False 5. NG 6. NG 7. False 8. NG 9. Pointed north 10. On his own 11. B 12. A 13. B 14. A 15. F 16. E 17. G 18. C 19. D 20. B 21. True 22. False 23. True 24. False 25. NG 26. NG 27. True 28. True 29. False 30. True 31. NG 32. False 33. NG 34. False 35. D 36. B 37. B 38. A 39. D 40. D

The Rufous Hare-Wallaby The Rufous Hare-Wallaby is a species of Australian kangaroo, usually known by its Aboriginal name, ‘mala’. At one time, there may have been as many as ten million of these little animals across the arid and semi-arid landscape of Australia, but their populations, like those of so many other small endemic species, were devastated when cats and foxes were introduced – indeed, during the 1950s it was thought that the mala was extinct. But in 1964, a small colony was found 450 miles northwest of Alice Springs in the Tanami Desert. And 12 years later, a second small colony was found nearby. Very extensive surveys were made throughout historical mala range – but no other traces were found. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, scientists from the Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory monitored these two populations. At first it seemed that they were holding their own. Then in late 1987, every one of the individuals of the second and smaller of the wild colonies was killed. From examination of the tracks in the sand, it seemed that just one single fox had been responsible. And then, in October 1991, a wild-fire destroyed the entire area occupied by the remaining colony. Thus the mala was finally pronounced extinct in the wild. Fortunately, ten years earlier, seven individuals had been captured, and had become the founders of a captive breeding programme at the Arid Zone Research Institute in Alice Springs; and that group had thrived. Part of this success is due to the fact that the female can breed when she is just five months old and can produce up to three young a year. Like other kangaroo species, the mother carries her young – known as a joey – in her pouch for about 15 weeks, and she can have more than one joey at the same time. In the early 1980s, there were enough mala in the captive population to make it feasible to start a reintroduction programme. But first it was necessary to discuss this with the leaders of the Yapa people. Traditionally, the mala had been an important animal in their culture, with strong medicinal powers for old people. It had also been an important food source, and there were concerns that any mala returned to the wild would be killed for the pot. And so, in 1980, a group of key Yapa men was invited to visit the proposed reintroduction area. The skills and knowledge of the Yapa would play a significant and enduring role in this and all other mala projects. With the help of the local Yapa, an electric fence was erected around 250 acres of suitable habitat, about 300 miles’ northwest of Alice Springs so that the mala could adapt while protected from predators. By 1992, there were about 150 mala in their enclosure, which became known as the Mala Paddock. However, all attempts to reintroduce mala from the paddocks into the unfenced wild were unsuccessful, so in the end the reintroduction programme was abandoned. The team now faced a situation where mala could be bred, but not released into the wild again. Thus, in 1993, a Mala Recovery Team was established to boost mala numbers, and goals for a new programme were set: the team concentrated on finding suitable predator-free or predator-controlled conservation sites within the mala’s known range. Finally, in March 1999, twelve adult females, eight adult males, and eight joeys were transferred from the Mala Paddock to Dryandra Woodland in Western Australia. Then, a few months later, a second group was transferred to Trimouille, an island off the coast of western Australia. First, it had been necessary to rid the island of rats and cats – a task that had taken two years of hard work. Six weeks after their release into this conservation site, a team returned to the island to find out how things were going. Each of the malas had been fitted with a radio collar that transmits for about 14 months, after which it falls off. The team was able to locate 29 out of the 30 transmitters – only one came from the collar of a mala that had died of unknown causes. So far the recovery programme had gone even better than expected. Today, there are many signs suggesting that the mala population on the island is continuing to do well. Questions 1-5 Complete the flow chart below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer. The Wild Australian mala • Distant past: total population of up to (1)……………………..in desert and semi-desert regions • Populations of malas were destroyed by (2)……………………. • 1964/1976: two surviving colonies were discovered • Scientists (3)……………………….the colonies • 1987: one of the colonies was completely destroyed • 1991: the other colony was destroyed by (4)……………………… • The wild mala was declared (5)……………….. Questions 6-9 Answer the questions below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer. 6. At what age can female malas start breeding? 7. For about how long do young malas stay inside their mother’s pouch? 8. Apart from being a food source, what value did malas have for the Yapa people? 9. What was the Yapa’s lasting contribution to the mala reintroduction programme? Questions 10-13 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? Write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN If there is no information on this 10. Natural defences were sufficient to protect the area called Mala Paddock. 11. Scientists eventually gave up their efforts to release captive mala into the unprotected wild. 12. The mala population which was transferred to Dryandra Woodland quickly increased in size. 13. Scientists were satisfied with the initial results of the recovery programme. Measures to combat infectious disease in tsarist Russia A In the second half of the seventeenth century, Russian authorities began implementing controls at the borders of their empire to prevent the importation of plague, a highly infectious and dangerous disease. Information on disease outbreak occurring abroad was regularly reported to the tsar’s court through various means, including commercial channels (travelling merchants), military personnel deployed abroad, undercover agents, the network of Imperial Foreign Office embassies and representations abroad, and the customs offices. For instance, the heads of customs offices were instructed to question foreigners entering Russia about possible epidemics of dangerous diseases in their respective countries. B If news of an outbreak came from abroad, relations with the affected country were suspended. For instance, foreign vessels were not allowed to dock in Russian ports if there was credible information about the existence of epidemics in countries from whence they had departed. In addition, all foreigners entering Russia from those countries had to undergo quarantine. In 1665, after receiving news about a plague epidemic in England, Tsar Alexei wrote a letter to King Charles II in which he announced the cessation of Russian trade relations with England and other foreign states. These protective measures appeared to have been effective, as the country did not record any cases of plague during that year and in the next three decades. It was not until 1692 that another plague outbreak was recorded in the Russian province of Astrakhan. This epidemic continued for five months and killed 10,383 people, or about 65 percent of the city’s population. By the end of the seventeenth century, preventative measures had been widely introduced in Russia, including the isolation of persons ill with plague, the imposition of quarantines, and the distribution of explanatory public health notices about plague outbreaks. C During the eighteenth century, although none of the occurrences was of the same scale as in the past, plague appeared in Russia several times. For instance, from 1703 to 1705, a plague outbreak that had ravaged Istanbul spread to the Podolsk and Kiev provinces in Russia, and then to Poland and Hungary. After defeating the Swedes in the battle of Poltava in 1709, Tsar Peter I (Peter the Great) dispatched part of his army to Poland, where plague had been raging for two years. Despite preventive measures, the disease spread among the Russian troops. In 1710, the plague reached Riga (then part of Sweden, now the capital of Latvia), where it was active until 1711 and claimed 60,000 lives. During this period, the Russians besieged Riga and, after the Swedes had surrendered the city in 1710, the Russian army lost 9.800 soldiers to the plague. Russian military chronicles of the time note that more soldiers died of the disease after the capture of Riga than from enemy fire during the siege of that city. D Tsar Peter I imposed strict measures to prevent the spread of plague during these conflicts. Soldiers suspected of being infected were isolated and taken to areas far from military camps. In addition, camps were designed to separate divisions, detachments, and smaller units of soldiers. When plague reached Narva (located in present-day Estonia) and threatened to spread to St. Petersburg, the newly built capital of Russia, Tsar Peter I ordered the army to cordon off the entire boundary along the Luga River, including temporarily halting all activity on the river. In order to prevent the movement of people and goods from Narva to St Petersburg and Novgorod, roadblocks and checkpoints were set up on all roads. The tsar’s orders were rigorously enforced, and those who disobeyed were hung. E However, although the Russian authorities applied such methods to contain the spread of the disease and limit the number of victims, all of the measures had a provisional character: they were intended to respond to a specific outbreak, and were not designed as a coherent set of measures to be implemented systematically at the first sign of plague. The advent of such a standard response system came a few years later. F The first attempts to organise procedures and carry out proactive steps to control plague date to the aftermath of the 1727- 1728 epidemic in Astrakhan. In response to this, the Russian imperial authorities issued several decrees aimed at controlling the future spread of plague. Among these decrees, the ‘Instructions for Governors and Heads of Townships’ required that all governors immediately inform the Senate – a government body created by Tsar Peter I in 1711 to advise the monarch – if plague cases were detected in their respective provinces. Furthermore, the decree required that governors ensure the physical examination of all persons suspected of carrying the disease and their subsequent isolation. In addition, it was ordered that sites where plague victims were found had to be encircled by checkpoints and isolated for the duration of the outbreak. These checkpoints were to remain operational for at least six weeks. The houses of infected persons were to be burned along with all of the personal property they contained, including farm animals and cattle. The governors were instructed to inform the neighbouring provinces and cities about every plague case occurring on their territories. Finally, letters brought by couriers were heated above a fire before being copied. G The implementation by the authorities of these combined measures demonstrates their intuitive understanding of the importance of the timely isolation of infected people to limit the spread of plague. Questions 14-19 Reading Passage 2 has SEVEN sections, A-G. Choose the correct heading for sections A-F from the list of headings below. List of Headings i Outbreaks of plague as a result of military campaigns. ii Systematic intelligence-gathering about external cases of plague. iii Early forms of treatment for plague victims. iv The general limitations of early Russian anti-plague measures. v Partly successful bans against foreign states affected by plague. vi Hostile reactions from foreign states to Russian anti-plague measures. vii Various measures to limit outbreaks of plague associated with war. viii The formulation and publication of preventive strategies. 14. Section A 15. Section B 16. Section C 17. Section D 18. Section E 19. Section F Questions 20-21 Choose TWO letters, A—E. Which TWO measures did Russia take in the seventeenth century to avoid plague outbreaks? A cooperation with foreign leaders B spying C military campaigns D restrictions on access to its ports E expulsion of foreigners Questions 22-23 Choose TWO letters, A-E. Which TWO statements are made about Russia in the early eighteenth century? A plague outbreaks were consistently smaller than before B military casualties at Riga exceeded the number of plague victims C the design of military camps allowed plague to spread quickly D the tsar’s plan to protect St Petersburg from plague was not strictly implemented E anti-plague measures were generally reactive rather than strategic Questions 24-26 Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. An outbreak of plague in (24)…………………….prompted the publication of a coherent preventative strategy. Provincial governors were ordered to burn the (25)………………….and possessions of plague victims. Correspondence was held over a (26)…………………….prior to copying it. Recovering a damaged reputation In 2009, it was revealed that some of the information published by the University of East Anglia’s Climatic Research Unit (CRU) in the UK, concerning climate change, had been inaccurate. Furthermore, it was alleged that some of the relevant statistics had been withheld from publication. The ensuing controversy affected the reputation not only of that institution, but also of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), with which the CRU is closely involved, and of climate scientists in general. Even if the claims of misconduct and incompetence were eventually proven to be largely untrue, or confined to a few individuals, the damage was done. The perceived wrongdoings of a few people had raised doubts about the many. The response of most climate scientists was to cross their fingers and hope for the best, and they kept a low profile. Many no doubt hoped that subsequent independent inquiries into the IPCC and CRU would draw a line under their problems. However, although these were likely to help, they were unlikely to undo the harm caused by months of hostile news reports and attacks by critics. The damage that has been done should not be underestimated. As Ralph Cicerone, the President of the US National Academy of Sciences, wrote in an editorial in the journal Science: ‘Public opinion has moved toward the view that scientists often try to suppress alternative hypotheses and ideas and that scientists will withhold data and try to manipulate some aspects of peer review to prevent dissent.’ He concluded that ‘the perceived misbehavior of even a few scientists can diminish the credibility of science as a whole.’ An opinion poll taken at the beginning of 2010 found that the proportion of people in the US who trust scientists as a source of information about global warming had dropped from 83 percent, in 2008, to 74 percent. Another survey carried out by the British Broadcasting Corporation in February 2010 found that just 26 percent of British people now believe that climate change is confirmed as being largely human-made, down from 41 percent in November 2009. Regaining the confidence and trust of the public is never easy. Hunkering down and hoping for the best – climate science’s current strategy – makes it almost impossible. It is much better to learn from the successes and failures of organisations that have dealt with similar blows to their public standing. In fact, climate science needs professional help to rebuild its reputation. It could do worse than follow the advice given by Leslie Gaines-Ross, a ‘reputation strategist’ at Public Relations (PR) company Webef Shandwick, in her recent book Corporate Reputation: 12 Steps to Safeguarding and Recovering Reputation. Gaines-Ross’s strategy is based on her analysis of how various organisations responded to crises, such as desktop-printer firm Xerox, whose business plummeted during the 1990s, and the USA’s National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) after the Columbia shuttle disaster in 2003. The first step she suggests is to ‘take the heat – leader first’. In many cases, chief executives who publicly accept responsibility for corporate failings can begin to reverse the freefall of their company’s reputations, but not always. If the leader is held at least partly responsible for the fall from grace, it can be almost impossible to convince critics that a new direction can be charted with that same person at the helm. This is the dilemma facing the heads of the IPCC and CRU. Both have been blamed for their organisations’ problems, not least for the way in which they have dealt with critics, and both have been subjected to public calls for their removal. Yet both organisations appear to believe they can repair their reputations without a change of leadership. The second step outlined by Gaines-Ross is to ‘communicate tirelessly’. Yet many climate researchers have avoided the media and the public, at least until the official enquiries have concluded their reports. This reaction may be understandable, but it has backfired. Journalists following the story have often been unable to find spokespeople willing to defend climate science. In this case, ‘no comment’ is commonly interpreted as an admission of silent, collective guilt. Remaining visible is only a start, though; climate scientists also need to be careful what they say. They must realise that they face doubts not just about their published results, but also about their conduct and honesty. It simply won’t work for scientists to continue to appeal to the weight of the evidence, while refusing to discuss the integrity of their profession. The harm has been increased by a perceived reluctance to admit even the possibility of mistakes or wrongdoing. The third step put forward by Gaines-Ross is ‘don’t underestimate your critics and competitors’. This means not only recognising the skill with which the opponents of climate research have executed their campaigns through Internet blogs and other media, but also acknowledging the validity of some of their criticisms. It is clear, for instance, that climate scientists need better standards of transparency, to allow for scrutiny not just by their peers, but also by critics from outside the world of research. It is also important to engage with those critics. That doesn’t mean conceding to unfounded arguments which are based on prejudice rather than evidence, but there is an obligation to help the public understand the causes of climate change, as well as the options for avoiding and dealing with the consequences. To begin the process of rebuilding trust in their profession, climate scientists need to follow these three seeps. But that is just the start. Gaines-Ross estimates that it typically takes four years for a company to rescue and restore a broken reputation. Winning back public confidence is a marathon, not a sprint, but you can’t win at all if you don’t step up to the starting line. Questions 27-32 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 3? Write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 27. If a majority of scientists at the CRU were cleared of misconduct, the public would be satisfied. 28. In the aftermath of the CRU scandal, most scientists avoided attention. 29. Journalists have defended the CRU and the IPCC against their critics. 30. Ralph Cicerone regarded the damage caused by the CRU as extending beyond the field of climate science. 31. Since 2010, confidence in climate science has risen slightly in the US. 32. Climate scientists should take professional advice on regaining public confidence. Questions 33-36 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 33. In accordance with Gaines-Ross’s views, the heads of the CRU and IPCC should have A resigned from their posts. B accepted responsibility and continued in their posts. C shifted attention onto more junior staff. D ignored the criticisms directed at them. 34. Which mistake have staff at the CRU and IPCC made? A They have blamed each other for problems. B They have publicly acknowledged failings. C They have avoided interviews with the press. D They have made conflicting public statements. 35. People who challenge the evidence of climate change have generally A presented their case poorly. B missed opportunities for publicity. C made some criticisms which are justified. D been dishonest in their statements. 36. What does the reference to ‘a marathon’ indicate in the final paragraph? A The rate at which the climate is changing. B The competition between rival theories of climate change. C The ongoing need for new climate data. D The time it might take for scientists to win back confidence Questions 37-40 Complete the summary using the list of words/phrases, A-H, below. Controversy about climate science The revelation, in 2009, that scientists at the CRU had presented inaccurate information and concealed some of their (37)………………………….had a serious effect on their reputation. In order to address the problem, the scientists should turn to experts in (38)………………………….. Leslie Gaines-Ross has published (39)……………………based on studies of crisis management in commercial and public-sector organisations. Amongst other things, Gaines-Ross suggests that climate scientists should confront their (40)……………………. A critics B corruption C statistics D guidelines E managers F public relations G sources H computer modelling Answers 1. 10/ten million 2. cats and foxes/ foxes and cats 3. monitored 4. (a wild-)fire 5. Extinct 6. 5/five months 7. 15/fifteen weeks 8. (strong) medicinal powers 9. skills and knowledge 10. False 11. True 12. NG 13. True 14. ii 15. v 16. i 17. vii 18. iv 19. viii 20. B, D 21. B, D 22. A, E 23. A, E 24. Astrakhan 25. Houses 26. Fire 27. No 28. Yes 29. No 30. Yes 31. NG 32. Yes 33. A 34. C 35. C 36. D 37. C 38. F 39. D 40. A

The Great Australian Fence A war has been going on for almost a hundred years between the sheep farmers of Australia and the dingo, Australia’s wild dog. To protect their livelihood, the farmers built a wire fence, 3,307 miles of continuous wire mesh, reaching from the coast of South Australia all the way to the cotton fields of eastern Queensland, just short of the Pacific Ocean. The Fence is Australia’s version of the Great Wall of China, but even longer, erected to keep out hostile invaders, in this case hordes of yellow dogs. The empire it preserves is that of the woolgrowers, sovereigns of the world’s second largest sheep flock, after China’s – some 123 million head – and keepers of a wool export business worth four billion dollars. Never mind that more and more people – conservationists, politicians, taxpayers and animal lovers – say that such a barrier would never be allowed today on ecological grounds. With sections of it almost a hundred years old, the dog fence has become, as conservationist Lindsay Fairweather ruefully admits, ‘an icon of Australian frontier ingenuity’. To appreciate this unusual outback monument and to meet the people whose livelihoods depend on it, I spent part of an Australian autumn travelling the wire. It’s known by different names in different states: the Dog Fence in South Australia, the Border Fence in New South Wales and the Barrier Fence in Queensland. I would call it simply the Fence. For most of its prodigious length, this epic fence winds like a river across a landscape that, unless a big rain has fallen, scarcely has rivers. The eccentric route, prescribed mostly by property lines, provides a sampler of outback topography: the Fence goes over sand dunes, past salt lakes, up and down rock-strewn hills, through dense scrub and across barren plains. The Fence stays away from towns. Where it passes near a town, it has actually become a tourist attraction visited on bus tours. It marks the traditional dividing line between cattle and sheep. Inside, where the dingoes are legally classified as vermin, they are shot, poisoned and trapped. Sheep and dingoes do not mix and the Fence sends that message mile after mile. What is this creature that by itself threatens an entire industry, inflicting several millions of dollars of damage a year despite the presence of the world’s most obsessive fence? Cousin to the coyote and the jackal, descended from the Asian wolf, Cam’s lupus dingo is an introduced species of wild dog. Skeletal remains indicate that the dingo was introduced to Australia more than 3,500 years ago probably with Asian seafarers who landed on the north coast. The adaptable dingo spread rapidly and in a short time became the top predator, killing off all its marsupial competitors. The dingo looks like a small wolf with a long nose, short pointed ears and a bushy tail. Dingoes rarely bark; they yelp and howl. Standing about 22 inches at the shoulder – slightly taller than a coyote – the dingo is Australia’s largest land carnivore. The woolgrowers’ war against dingoes, which is similar to the sheep ranchers’ rage against coyotes in the US, started not long after the first European settlers disembarked in 1788, bringing with them a cargo of sheep. Dingoes officially became outlaws in 1830 when governments placed a bounty on their heads. Today bounties for problem dogs killing sheep inside the Fence can reach $500. As pioneers penetrated the interior with their flocks of sheep, fences replaced shepherds until, by the end of the 19th century, thousands of miles of barrier fencing crisscrossed the vast grazing lands. The dingo started out as a quiet observer,’ writes Roland Breckwoldt, in A Very Elegant Animal: The Dingo, ‘but soon came to represent everything that was dark and dangerous on the continent.’ It is estimated that since sheep arrived in Australia, dingo numbers have increased a hundredfold. Though dingoes have been eradicated from parts of Australia, an educated guess puts the population at more than a million. Eventually government officials and graziers agreed that one well-maintained fence, placed on the outer rim of sheep country and paid for by taxes levied on woolgrowers, should supplant the maze of private netting. By 1960, three states joined their barriers to form a single dog fence. The intense private battles between woolgrowers and dingoes have usually served to define the Fence only in economic terms. It marks the difference between profit and loss. Yet the Fence casts a much broader ecological shadow for it has become a kind of terrestrial dam, deflecting the flow of animals inside and out. The ecological side effects appear most vividly at Sturt National Park. In 1845, explorer Charles Sturt led an expedition through these parts on a futile search for an inland sea. For Sturt and other early explorers, it was a rare event to see a kangaroo. Now they are ubiquitous for without a native predator the kangaroo population has exploded inside the Fence. Kangaroos are now cursed more than dingoes. They have become the rivals of sheep, competing for water and grass. In response state governments cull* more than three million kangaroos a year to keep Australia’s national symbol from overrunning the pastoral lands. Park officials, who recognise that the fence is to blame, respond to the excess of kangaroos by saying The fence is there, and we have to live with it. Questions 1-4 Choose the appropriate letters A-D and write them in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet. 1. Why was the fence built? A to separate the sheep from the cattle B to stop the dingoes from being slaughtered by farmers C to act as a boundary between properties D to protect the Australian wool industry 2. On what point do the conservationists and politicians agree? A Wool exports are vital to the economy. B The fence poses a threat to the environment. C The fence acts as a useful frontier between states. D The number of dogs needs to be reduced. 3. Why did the author visit Australia? A to study Australian farming methods B to investigate how the fence was constructed C because he was interested in life around the fence D because he wanted to learn more about the wool industry 4. How does the author feel about the fence? A impressed B delighted C shocked D annoyed Questions 5-11 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? In boxes 5-11 on your answer sheet write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 5. The fence serves a different purpose in each state. 6. The fence is only partially successful. 7. The dingo is indigenous to Australia. 8. Dingoes have flourished as a result of the sheep industry. 9. Dingoes are known to attack humans. 10. Kangaroos have increased in number because of the fence. 11. The author does not agree with the culling of kangaroos. Questions 12-13 Choose the appropriate letters A-D and write them in boxes 12-13 on your answer sheet. 12. When did the authorities first acknowledge the dingo problem? A 1788 B 1830 C 1845 D 1960 13. How do the park officials feel about the fence? A philosophical B angry C pleased D proud IT’S ECO-LOGICAL If there were awards for tourism phrases that have been hijacked, diluted and misused then ‘ecotourism’ would earn top prize. The term first surfaced in the early 1980s reflecting a surge in environmental awareness and a realisation by tour operators that many travellers wanted to believe their presence abroad would not have a negative impact. It rapidly became the hottest marketing tag a holiday could carry. These days the ecotourism label is used to cover anything from a two-week tour living with remote Indonesian tribes, to a one-hour motorboat trip through an Australian gorge. In fact, any tour that involves cultural interaction, natural beauty spots, wildlife or a dash of soft adventure is likely to be included in the overflowing ecotourism folder. There is no doubt the original motives behind the movement were honourable attempts to provide a way for those who cared to make informed choices, but the lack of regulations and a standard industry definition left many travellers lost in an ecotourism jungle. It is easier to understand why the ecotourism market has become so overcrowded when we look at its wider role in the world economy. According to World Tourism Organisation figures, ecotourism is worth US$20 billion a year and makes up one-fifth of all international tourism. Add to this an annual growth rate of around five per cent and the pressure for many operators, both in developed and developing countries, to jump on the accelerating bandwagon is compelling. Without any widely recognised accreditation system, the consumer has been left to investigate the credentials of an operator themselves. This is a time-consuming process and many travellers usually take an operator’s claims at face value, only adding to the proliferation of fake ecotours. However, there are several simple questions that will provide qualifying evidence of a company’s commitment to minimise its impact on the environment and maximise the benefits to the tourism area’s local community. For example, does the company use recycled or sustainable, locally harvested materials to build its tourist properties? Do they pay fair wages to all employees? Do they offer training to employees? It is common for city entrepreneurs to own tour companies in country areas, which can mean the money you pay ends up in the city rather than in the community being visited. By taking a little extra time to investigate the ecotourism options, it is not only possible to guide your custom to worthy operators but you will often find that the experience they offer is far more rewarding. The ecotourism business is still very much in need of a shake-up and a standardised approach. There are a few organisations that have sprung up in the last ten years or so that endeavour to educate travellers and operators about the benefits of responsible ecotourism. Founded in 1990, the Ecotourism Society (TES) is a non-profit organisation of travel industry, conservation and ecological professionals, which aims to make ecotourism a genuine tool for conservation and sustainable development. Helping to create inherent economic value in wilderness environments and threatened cultures has undoubtedly been one of the ecotourism movement’s most notable achievements. TES organises an annual initiative to further aid development of the ecotourism industry. This year it is launching ‘Your Travel Choice Makes a Difference’, an educational campaign aimed at helping consumers understand the potential positive and negative impacts of their travel decisions. TES also offers guidance on the choice of ecotour and has established a register of approved ecotourism operators around the world. A leading ecotourism operator in the United Kingdom is Tribes, which won the 1999 Tourism Concern and Independent Traveller’s World ‘Award for Most Responsible Tour Operator’. Amanda Marks, owner and director of Tribes, believes that the ecotourism industry still has some way to go to get its house in order. Until now, no ecotourism accreditation scheme has really worked, principally because there has been no systematic way of checking that accredited companies actually comply with the code of practice. Amanda believes that the most promising system is the recently re-launched Green Globe 21 scheme. The Green Globe 21 award is based on the sustainable development standards contained in Agenda 21 from the 1992 Earth Summit and was originally coordinated by the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC). The scheme is now an independent concern, though the WTTC still supports it. Until recently, tour companies became affiliates and could use the Green Globe logo merely on payment of an annual fee, hardly a suitable qualifying standard. However, in November 1999 Green Globe 21 introduced an annual, independent check on operators wishing to use the logo. Miriam Cain, from the Green Globe 21 marketing development, explains that current and new affiliates will now have one year to ensure that their operations comply with Agenda 21 standards. If they fail the first inspection, they can only reapply once. The inspection process is not a cheap option, especially for large companies, but the benefits of having Green Globe status and the potential operational cost savings that complying with the standards can bring should be significant. ‘We have joint ventures with organisations around the world, including Australia and the Caribbean, that will allow us to effectively check all affiliate operators,’ says Miriam. The scheme also allows destination communities to become Green Globe 21 approved. For a relatively new industry it is not surprising that ecotourism has undergone teething pains. However, there are signs that things are changing for the better. With a committed and unified approach by the travel industry, local communities, travellers and environmental experts could make ecotourism a tag to be proud of and trusted. Questions 14-19 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 2? In boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 14. The term ‘ecotourism’ has become an advertising gimmick. 15. The intentions of those who coined the term ‘ecotourism’ were sincere. 16. Ecotourism is growing at a faster rate than any other type of travel. 17. It is surprising that so many tour organisations decided to become involved in ecotourism. 18. Tourists have learnt to make investigations about tour operators before using them. 19. Tourists have had bad experiences on ecotour holidays. Questions 20-22 According to the information given in the reading passage, which THREE of the following are true of the Ecotourism Society (TES)? A it has monitored the growth in ecotourism B it involves a range of specialists in the field C it has received public recognition for the role it performs D it sets up regular ecotour promotions E it offers information on ecotours at an international level F it consults with people working in tourist destinations Questions 23-24 According to the information given in the reading passage, which TWO of the following are true of the Green Globe 21 award? A the scheme is self regulating B Amanda Marks was recruited to develop the award C prior to 1999 companies were not required to pay for membership D both tour operators and tour sites can apply for affiliation E it intends to reduce the number of ecotour operators Questions 25-27 Using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS, answer the following questions. 25. Which body provides information on global tourist numbers? 26. Who often gains financially from tourism in rural environments? 27. Which meeting provided the principles behind the Green Globe 21 regulations? Striking the right note The uncanny, if sometimes distracting, ability to name a solitary note out of the blue, without any other notes for reference, is a prized musical talent – and a scientific mystery. Musicians with perfect pitch – or, as many researchers prefer to call it, absolute pitch – can often play pieces by ear, and many can transcribe music brilliantly. That’s because they perceive the position of a note in the musical stave – its pitch – as clearly as the fact that they heard it. Hearing and naming the pitch go hand in hand. By contrast, most musicians follow not the notes, but the relationship between them. They may easily recognise two notes as being a certain number of tones apart, but could name the higher note as an E only if they are told the lower one is a C, for example. This is relative pitch. Useful, but much less mysterious. For centuries, absolute pitch has been thought of as the preserve of the musical elite. Some estimates suggest that maybe fewer than 1 in 2,000 people possess it. But a growing number of studies, from speech experiments to brain scans, are now suggesting that a knack for absolute pitch may be far more common, and more varied, than previously thought. ‘Absolute pitch is not an all or nothing feature,’ says Marvin, a music theorist at the University of Rochester in New York state. Some researchers even claim that we could all develop the skill, regardless of our musical talent. And their work may finally settle a decades-old debate about whether absolute pitch depends on melodious genes – or early music lessons. Music psychologist Diana Deutsch at the University of California in San Diego is the leading voice. Last month at the Acoustical Society of America meeting in Columbus, Ohio, Deutsch reported a study that suggests we all have the potential to acquire absolute pitch – and that speakers of tone languages use it every day. A third of the world’s population – chiefly people in Asia and Africa – speak tone languages, in which a word’s meaning can vary depending on the pitch a speaker uses. Deutsch and her colleagues asked seven native Vietnamese speakers and 15 native Mandarin speakers to read out lists of words on different days. The chosen words spanned a range of pitches, to force the speakers to raise and lower their voices considerably. By recording these recited lists and taking the average pitch for each whole word, the researchers compared the pitches used by each person to say each word on different days. Both groups showed strikingly consistent pitch for any given word – often less than a quarter-tone difference between days. ‘The similarity,’ Deutsch says, ‘is mind-boggling.’ It’s also, she says, a real example of absolute pitch. As babies, the speakers learnt to associate certain pitches with meaningful words – just as a musician labels one tone A and another B – and they demonstrate this precise use of pitch regardless of whether or not they have had any musical training, she adds. Deutsch isn’t the only researcher turning up everyday evidence of absolute pitch. At least three other experiments have found that people can launch into familiar songs at or very near the correct pitches. Some researchers have nicknamed this ability ‘absolute memory’, and they say it pops up on other senses, too. Given studies like these, the real mystery is why we don’t all have absolute pitch, says cognitive psychologist Daniel Levitin of McGill University in Montreal. Over the past decade, researchers have confirmed that absolute pitch often runs in families. Nelson Freimer of the University of California in San Francisco, for example, is just completing a study that he says strongly suggests the right genes help create this brand of musical genius. Freimer gave tone tests to people with absolute pitch and to their relatives. He also tested several hundred other people who had taken early music lessons. He found that relatives of people with absolute pitch were far more likely to develop the skill than people who simply had the music lessons. There is clearly a familial aggregation of absolute pitch,’ Freimer says. Freimer says some children are probably genetically predisposed toward absolute pitch – and this innate inclination blossoms during childhood music lessons. Indeed, many researchers now point to this harmony of nature and nurture to explain why musicians with absolute pitch show different levels of the talent. Indeed, researchers are finding more and more evidence suggesting music lessons are critical to the development of absolute pitch. In a survey of 2,700 students in American music conservatories and college programmes, New York University geneticist Peter Gregersen and his colleagues found that a whopping 32 per cent of the Asian students reported having absolute pitch, compared with just 7 per cent of non-Asian students. While that might suggest a genetic tendency towards absolute pitch in the Asian population, Gregersen says that the type and timing of music lessons probably explains much of the difference. For one thing, those with absolute pitch started lessons, on average, when they were five years old, while those without absolute pitch started around the age of eight. Moreover, adds Gregersen, the type of music lessons favoured in Asia, and by many of the Asian families in his study, such as the Suzuki method, often focus on playing by ear and learning the names of musical notes, while those more commonly used in the US tend to emphasise learning scales in a relative pitch way. In Japanese pre-school music programmes, he says, children often have to listen to notes played on a piano and hold up a coloured flag to signal the pitch. ‘There’s a distinct cultural difference,’ he says. Deutsch predicts that further studies will reveal absolute pitch – in its imperfect, latent form – inside all of us. The Western emphasis on relative pitch simply obscures it, she contends. ‘It’s very likely that scientists will end up concluding that we’re all born with the potential to acquire very fine-grained absolute pitch. It’s really just a matter of life getting in the way.’ Questions 28-35 Complete the notes below using words from the box. Write your answers in boxes 28-35 on your answer sheet. NOTES Research is being conducted into the mysterious musical (28)……………….some people possess known as perfect pitch. Musicians with this talent are able to name and sing a (29)……………….without reference to another and it is this that separates them from the majority who have only (30)………………….pitch. The research aims to find out whether this skill is the product of genetic inheritance or early exposure to (31)…………………or, as some researchers believe, a combination of both. One research team sought a link between perfect pitch and (32)…………………..languages in order to explain the high number of Asian speakers with perfect pitch. Speakers of Vietnamese and Mandarin were asked to recite (33)……………………on different occasions and the results were then compared in terms of (34)………………………A separate study found that the approach to teaching music in many Asian (35)……………………. emphasised playing by ear whereas the US method was based on the relative pitch approach. List of words ability music lessons pitch words tone relative cultures note Questions 36-40 Reading Passage 3 contains a number of opinions provided by five different scientists. Match each opinion (Questions 36-40) with one of the scientists (A-E). A Levitin B Deutsch C Gregersen D Marvin E Freimer You may use any of the people A-E more than once. 36. Absolute pitch is not a clear-cut issue. 37. Anyone can learn how to acquire perfect pitch. 38. It’s actually surprising that not everyone has absolute pitch. 39. The perfect pitch ability is genetic. 40. The important thing is the age at which music lessons are started. Answers 1. D 2. B 3. C 4. A 5. No 6. Yes 7. No 8. Yes 9. NG 10. Yes 11. NG 12. B 13. A 14. Yes 15. Yes 16. NG 17. No 18. No 19. NG 20. B, D, E 21. B, D, E 22. B, D, E 23. A, D 24. A, D 25. World Tourism Organization/Organisation 26. city entrepreneurs 27. 1992 Earth Summit 28. Ability 29. Note 30. Relative 31. Music lessons 32. Tone 33. Words 34. Pitch 35. Cultures 36. D 37. B 38. A 39. E 40. C

The secret of staying young Pheidole dentata, a native ant of the south-eastern U.S., isn’t immortal. But scientists have found that it doesn’t seem to show any signs of aging. Old worker ants can do everything just as well as the youngsters, and their brains appear just as sharp. ‘We get a picture that these ants really don’t decline,’ says Ysabel Giraldo, who studied the ants for her doctoral thesis at Boston University. Such age-defying feats are rare in the animal kingdom. Naked mole rats can live for almost 30 years and stay fit for nearly their entire lives. They can still reproduce even when old, and they never get cancer. But the vast majority of animals deteriorate with age just like people do. Like the naked mole rat, ants are social creatures that usually live in highly organised colonies. ‘It’s this social complexity that makes P. dentata useful for studying aging in people,’ says Giraldo, now at the California Institute of Technology. Humans are also highly social, a trait that has been connected to healthier aging. By contrast, most animal studies of aging use mice, worms or fruit flies, which all lead much more isolated lives. In the lab, P. dentata worker ants typically live for around 140 days. Giraldo focused on ants at four age ranges: 20 to 22 days, 45 to 47 days, 95 to 97 days and 120 to 122 days. Unlike all previous studies, which only estimated how old the ants were, her work tracked the ants from the time the pupae became adults, so she knew their exact ages. Then she put them through a range of tests. Giraldo watched how well the ants took care of the young of the colony, recording how often each ant attended to, carried and fed them. She compared how well 20-day-old and 95-day-old ants followed the telltale scent that the insects usually leave to mark a trail to food. She tested how ants responded to light and also measured how active they were by counting how often ants in a small dish walked across a line. And she experimented with how ants react to live prey: a tethered fruit fly. Giraldo expected the older ants to perform poorly in all these tasks. But the elderly insects were all good caretakers and trail-followers—the 95-day-old ants could track the scent even longer than their younger counterparts. They all responded to light well, and the older ants were more active. And when it came to reacting to prey, the older ants attacked the poor fruit fly just as aggressively as the young ones did, flaring their mandibles or pulling at the fly’s legs. Then Giraldo compared the brains of 20-day-old and 95-day-old ants, identifying any cells that were close to death. She saw no major differences with age, nor was there any difference in the location of the dying cells, showing that age didn’t seem to affect specific brain functions. Ants and other insects have structures in their brains called mushroom bodies, which are important for processing information, learning and memory. She also wanted to see if aging affects the density of synaptic complexes within these structures—regions where neurons come together. Again, the answer was no. What was more, the old ants didn’t experience any drop in the levels of either serotonin or dopamine—brain chemicals whose decline often coincides with aging. In humans, for example, a decrease in serotonin has been linked to Alzheimer’s disease. ‘This is the first time anyone has looked at both behavioral and neural changes in these ants so thoroughly,’ says Giraldo, who recently published the findings in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B. Scientists have looked at some similar aspects in bees, but the results of recent bee studies were mixed—some studies showed age-related declines, which biologists call senescence, and others didn’t. ‘For now, the study raises more questions than it answers,’ Giraldo says, ‘including how P. dentata stays in such good shape.’ Also, if the ants don’t deteriorate with age, why do they die at all? Out in the wild, the ants probably don’t live for a full 140 days thanks to predators, disease and just being in an environment that’s much harsher than the comforts of the lab. ‘The lucky ants that do live into old age may suffer a steep decline just before dying,’ Giraldo says, but she can’t say for sure because her study wasn’t designed to follow an ant’s final moments. ‘It will be important to extend these findings to other species of social insects,’ says Gene E. Robinson, an entomologist at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. This ant might be unique, or it might represent a broader pattern among other social bugs with possible clues to the science of aging in larger animals. Either way, it seems that for these ants, age really doesn’t matter. Questions 1 – 8 Complete the notes below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. Write your answer in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet. Ysabel Giraldo’s research Focused on a total of (1)………………different age groups of ants, analysing Behaviour: • how well ants looked after their (2)……………… • their ability to locate (3)……………..using a scent trail • the effect that (4)………….had on them • how (5)………………they attacked prey Brains: • comparison between age and the (6)……………….of dying cells in the brains of ants • condition of synaptic complexes (areas in which (7)……………….meet) in the brain’s ‘mushroom bodies’ • level of two (8)…………….in the brain associated with ageing Questions 9 – 13 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? In boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 9 Pheidole dentata ants are the only known animals which remain active for almost their whole lives. 10 Ysabel Giraldo was the first person to study Pheidole dentata ants using precise data about the insects’ ages. 11 The ants in Giraldo’s experiments behaved as she had predicted that they would. 12 The recent studies of bees used different methods of measuring age- related decline. 13 Pheidole dentata ants kept in laboratory conditions tend to live longer lives. Why zoos are good A In my view, it is perfectly possible for many species of animals living in zoos or wildlife parks to have a quality of life as high as, or higher than, in the wild. Animals in good zoos get a varied and high-quality diet with all the supplements required, and any illnesses they might have will be treated. Their movement might be somewhat restricted, but they have a safe environment in which to live, and they are spared bullying and social ostracism by others of their kind. They do not suffer from the threat or stress of predators, or the irritation and pain of parasites or injuries. The average captive animal will have a greater life expectancy compared with its wild counterpart, and will not die of drought, of starvation or in the jaws of a predator. A lot of very nasty things happen to truly ‘wild’ animals that simply don’t happen in good zoos, and to view a life that is ‘free’ as one that is automatically ‘good’ is, I think, an error. Furthermore, zoos serve several key purposes. B Firstly, zoos aid conservation. Colossal numbers of species are becoming extinct across the world, and many more are increasingly threatened and therefore risk extinction. Moreover, some of these collapses have been sudden, dramatic and unexpected, or were simply discovered very late in the day. A species protected in captivity can be bred up to provide a reservoir population against a population crash or extinction in the wild. A good number of species only exist in captivity, with many of these living in zoos. Still more only exist in the wild because they have been reintroduced from zoos, or have wild populations that have been boosted by captive bred animals. Without these efforts there would be fewer species alive today. Although reintroduction successes are few and far between, the numbers are increasing, and the very fact that species have been saved or reintroduced as a result of captive breeding proves the value of such initiatives. C Zoos also provide education. Many children and adults, especially those in cities, will never see a wild animal beyond a fox or pigeon. While it is true that television documentaries are becoming ever more detailed and impressive, and many natural history specimens are on display in museums, there really is nothing to compare with seeing a living creature in the flesh, hearing it, smelling it, watching what it does and having the time to absorb details. That alone will bring a greater understanding and perspective to many, and hopefully give them a greater appreciation for wildlife, conservation efforts and how they can contribute. D In addition to this, there is also the education that can take place in zoos through signs, talks and presentations which directly communicate information to visitors about the animals they are seeing and their place in the world. This was an area where zoos used to be lacking, but they are now increasingly sophisticated in their communication and outreach work. Many zoos also work directly to educate conservation workers in other countries, or send their animal keepers abroad to contribute their knowledge and skills to those working in zoos and reserves, thereby helping to improve conditions and reintroductions all over the world. E Zoos also play a key role in research. If we are to save wild species and restore and repair ecosystems we need to know about how key species live, act and react. Being able to undertake research on animals in zoos where there is less risk and fewer variables means real changes can be effected on wild populations. Finding out about, for example, the oestrus cycle of an animal or its breeding rate helps us manage wild populations. Procedures such as capturing and moving at-risk or dangerous individuals are bolstered by knowledge gained in zoos about doses for anaesthetics, and by experience in handling and transporting animals. This can make a real difference to conservation efforts and to the reduction of human-animal conflicts, and can provide a knowledge base for helping with the increasing threats of habitat destruction and other problems. F In conclusion, considering the many ongoing global threats to the environment, it is hard for me to see zoos as anything other than essential to the long-term survival of numerous species. They are vital not just in terms of protecting animals, but as a means of learning about them to aid those still in the wild, as well as educating and informing the general population about these animals and their world so that they can assist or at least accept the need to be more environmentally conscious. Without them, the world would be, and would increasingly become, a much poorer place. Questions 14 – 17 Reading Passage 2 has six paragraphs, A-F. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 14-17 on your answer sheet. 14 a reference to how quickly animal species can die out 15 reasons why it is preferable to study animals in captivity rather than in the wild 16 mention of two ways of learning about animals other than visiting them in zoos 17 reasons why animals in zoos may be healthier than those in the wild Questions 18 – 22 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2? In boxes 18-22 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 18 An animal is likely to live longer in a zoo than in the wild. 19 There are some species in zoos which can no longer be found in the wild. 20 Improvements in the quality of TV wildlife documentaries have resulted in increased numbers of zoo visitors. 21 Zoos have always excelled at transmitting information about animals to the public. 22 Studying animals in zoos is less stressful for the animals than studying them in the wild. Questions 23 and 24 Choose TWO letters, A-E. Write the correct letters in boxes 23 and 24 on your answer sheet. Which TWO of the following are stated about zoo staff in the text? A Some take part in television documentaries about animals. B Some travel to overseas locations to join teams in zoos. C Some get experience with species in the wild before taking up zoo jobs. D Some teach people who are involved with conservation projects. E Some specialise in caring for species which are under threat. Questions 25 and 26 Choose TWO letters, A-E. Write the correct letters in boxes 25 and 26 on your answer sheet. Which TWO of these beliefs about zoos does the writer mention in the text? A They can help children overcome their fears of wild animals. B They can increase public awareness of environmental issues. C They can provide employment for a range of professional people. D They can generate income to support wildlife conservation projects. E They can raise animals which can later be released into the wild. READING PASSAGE 3 Chelsea Rochman, an ecologist at the University of California, Davis, has been trying to answer a dismal question: Is everything terrible, or are things just very, very bad? Rochman is a member of the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis’s marine-debris working group, a collection of scientists who study, among other things, the growing problem of marine debris, also known as ocean trash. Plenty of studies have sounded alarm bells about the state of marine debris; in a recent paper published in the journal Ecology, Rochman and her colleagues set out to determine how many of those perceived risks are real. Often, Rochman says, scientists will end a paper by speculating about the broader impacts of what they’ve found. For example, a study could show that certain seabirds eat plastic bags, and go on to warn that whole bird populations are at risk of dying out. ‘But the truth was that nobody had yet tested those perceived threats,’ Rochman says. ‘There wasn’t a lot of information.’ Rochman and her colleagues examined more than a hundred papers on the impacts of marine debris that were published through 2013. Within each paper, they asked what threats scientists had studied – 366 perceived threats in all – and what they’d actually found. In 83 percent of cases, the perceived dangers of ocean trash were proven true. In the remaining cases, the working group found the studies had weaknesses in design and content which affected the validity of their conclusions – they lacked a control group, for example, or used faulty statistics. Strikingly, Rochman says, only one well-designed study failed to find the effect it was looking for, an investigation of mussels ingesting microscopic plastic bits. The plastic moved from the mussels’ stomachs to their bloodstreams, scientists found, and stayed there for weeks – but didn’t seem to stress out the shellfish. While mussels may be fine eating trash, though, the analysis also gave a clearer picture of the many ways that ocean debris is bothersome. Within the studies they looked at, most of the proven threats came from plastic debris, rather than other materials like metal or wood. Most of the dangers also involved large pieces of debris – animals getting entangled in trash, for example, or eating it and severely injuring themselves. But a lot of ocean debris is ‘microplastic’, or pieces smaller than five millimeters. These may be ingredients used in cosmetics and toiletries, fibers shed by synthetic clothing in the wash, or eroded remnants of larger debris. Compared to the number of studies investigating large-scale debris, Rochman’s group found little research on the effects of these tiny bits. ‘There are a lot of open questions still for microplastic,’ Rochman says, though she notes that more papers on the subject have been published since 2013, the cutoff point for the group’s analysis. There are also, she adds, a lot of open questions about the ways that ocean debris can lead to sea-creature death. Many studies have looked at how plastic affects an individual animal, or that animal’s tissues or cells, rather than whole populations. And in the lab, scientists often use higher concentrations of plastic than what’s really in the ocean. None of that tells us how many birds or fish or sea turtles could die from plastic pollution – or how deaths in one species could affect that animal’s predators, or the rest of the ecosystem. ‘We need to be asking more ecologically relevant questions,’ Rochman says. Usually, scientists don’t know exactly how disasters such as a tanker accidentally spilling its whole cargo of oil and polluting huge areas of the ocean will affect the environment until after they’ve happened. ‘We don’t ask the right questions early enough,’ she says. But if ecologists can understand how the slow-moving effect of ocean trash is damaging ecosystems, they might be able to prevent things from getting worse. Asking the right questions can help policy makers, and the public, figure out where to focus their attention. The problems that look or sound most dramatic may not be the best places to start. For example, the name of the ‘Great Pacific Garbage Patch’ – a collection of marine debris in the northern Pacific Ocean – might conjure up a vast, floating trash island. In reality though, much of the debris is tiny or below the surface; a person could sail through the area without seeing any trash at all. A Dutch group called ‘The Ocean Cleanup’ is currently working on plans to put mechanical devices in the Pacific Garbage Patch and similar areas to suck up plastic. But a recent paper used simulations to show that strategically positioning the cleanup devices closer to shore would more effectively reduce pollution over the long term. ‘I think clearing up some of these misperceptions is really important,’ Rochman says. Among scientists as well as in the media, she says, ‘A lot of the images about strandings and entanglement and all of that cause the perception that plastic debris is killing everything in the ocean.’ Interrogating the existing scientific literature can help ecologists figure out which problems really need addressing, and which ones they’d be better off- like the mussels – absorbing and ignoring. Questions 27 – 33 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 3? In boxes 27-33 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 27 Rochman and her colleagues were the first people to research the problem of marine debris. 28 The creatures most in danger from ocean trash are certain seabirds. 29 The studies Rochman has reviewed have already proved that populations of some birds will soon become extinct. 30 Rochman analysed papers on the different kinds of danger caused by ocean trash. 31 Most of the research analysed by Rochman and her colleagues was badly designed. 32 One study examined by Rochman was expecting to find that mussels were harmed by eating plastic. 33 Some mussels choose to eat plastic in preference to their natural diet. Questions 34 – 39 Complete the notes below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 34-39 on your answer sheet. Findings related to marine debris Studies of marine debris found the biggest threats were • plastic (not metal or wood) • bits of debris that were (34)……………..(harmful to animals) There was little research into (35)……………….e.g. from synthetic fibres. Drawbacks of the studies examined • most of them focused on individual animals, not entire 36 • the (37)…………………….of plastic used in the lab did not always reflect those in the ocean • there was insufficient information on – numbers of animals which could be affected – the impact of a reduction in numbers on the (38)……………….of that species – the impact on the ecosystem Rochman says more information is needed on the possible impact of future (39)………….(e.g. involving oil). Question 40 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 40 What would be the best title for this passage? A Assessing the threat of marine debris B Marine debris: who is to blame? C A new solution to the problem of marine debris D Marine debris: the need for international action Answers 1. 4 2. young 3. food 4. light 5. aggressively 6. location 7. neurons 8. chemicals 9. False 10. True 11. False 12. Not given 13. True 14. B 15. E 16. C 17. A 18. True 19. True 20. Not given 21. False 22. Not given 23. B 24. D 25. B 26. E 27. False 28. Not given 29. False 30. True 31. False 32. True 33. Not given 34. large 35. microplastic 36. populations 37. concentrations 38. predators 39. disasters 40. A

Experience versus speed Jake, aged 16, has a terrific relationship with his grandmother Rita, who is 70. They live close by, and they even take a Spanish class together twice a week at a local college. After class, they sometimes stop at a cafe for a snack. On one occasion, Rita tells Jake, ‘I think it’s great how fast you pick up new grammar. It takes me a lot longer.’ Jake replies, ‘Yeah, but you don’t seem to make as many silly mistakes on the quizzes as I do. How do you do that?’ In that moment, Rita and Jake stumbled across an interesting set of differences between older and younger minds. Popular psychology says that as people age their brains ‘slow down’. The implication, of course, is that elderly men and women are not as mentally agile as middle-aged adults or even teenagers. However, although certain brain functions such as perception and reaction time do indeed take longer, that slowing down does not necessarily undermine mental sharpness. Indeed, evidence shows that older people are just as mentally fit as younger people because their brains compensate for some kinds of declines in creative ways that young minds do not exploit. Just as people’s bodies age at different rates, so do their minds. As adults advance in age, the perception of sights, sounds and smells takes a bit longer, and laying down new information into memory becomes more difficult. The ability to retrieve memories also quickly slides and it is sometimes harder to concentrate and maintain attention. On the other hand, the ageing brain can create significant benefits by tapping into its extensive hoard of accumulated knowledge and experience. The biggest trick that older brains employ is to use both hemispheres simultaneously to handle tasks for which younger brains rely predominantly on one side. Electronic images taken by cognitive scientists at the University of Michigan, for example, have demonstrated that even when doing basic recognition or memorization exercises, seniors exploit the left and right side of the brain more extensively than men and women who are decades younger. Drawing on both sides of the brain gives them a tactical edge, even if the speed of each hemisphere’s process is slower. In another experiment, Michael Falkenstein of the University of Dortmund in Germany found that when elders were presented with new computer exercises they paused longer before reacting and took longer to complete the tasks, yet they made 50% fewer errors, probably because of their more deliberate pace. One analogy for these results might be the question of who can type a paragraph ‘better’: a 16-year-old who glides along at 60 words per minute but has to double back to correct a number of mistakes or a 70-year-old who strikes keys at only 40 words per minute but spends less time fixing errors? In the end, if ‘better’ is defined as completing a clean paragraph. both people may end up taking the same amount of time. Computerized tests support the notion that accuracy can offset speed. In one so-called distraction exercise, subjects were told to look at a screen, wait for an arrow that pointed in a certain direction to appear, and then use a mouse to click on the arrow as soon as it appeared on the screen. Just before the correct symbol appeared, however, the computer displayed numerous other arrows aimed in various other directions. Although younger subjects cut through the confusion faster when the correct arrow suddenly popped up, they more frequently clicked on incorrect arrows in their haste. Older test takers are equally capable of other tasks that do not depend on speed, such as language comprehension and processing. In these cases, however. the elders utilize the brain’s available resources in a different way. Neurologists at Northwest University came to this conclusion after analyzing 50 people ranging from age 23 to 78. The subjects had to lie down in a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machine and concentrate on two different lists of printed words posted side by side in front of them. By looking at the lists, they were to find pairs of words that were similar in either meaning or spelling. The eldest participants did just as well on the tests as the youngest did, and yet the MRI scans indicated that in the elders’ brains, the areas which are responsible for language recognition and interpretation were much less active. The researchers did find that the older people had more activity in brain regions responsible for attentiveness. Darren Gleitman, who headed the study, concluded that older brains solved the problems just as effectively but by different means. Questions 1-3 Choose the correct answer A, B, C or D and write them on your answer sheet from 1-3 1 The conversation between Jake and Rita is used to give an example of A. the way we learn languages. B. the changes that occur in our brains over time. C. the fact that it is easier to learn a language at a young age. D. the importance of young and old people doing things together. 2 In paragraph six, what point is the analogy used to illustrate? A. Working faster is better than working slower. B. Accuracy is less important than speed. C. Accuracy can improve over time. D. Working faster does not always save time. 3 In the computerized distraction exercises, the subjects had to A. react to a particular symbol on the screen. B. type a text as quickly as possible. C. move an arrow in different directions around the screen. D. click on every arrow that appeared on the screen. Questions 4-7 Complete each sentence with the correct ending A-F. Write the correct letter A-F in boxes 4-7 on your answer sheet 4 According to popular psychology 5 Researchers at the University of Michigan showed that 6 Michael Falkenstein discovered that 7 Scientists at Northwest University concluded that A. the older we get the harder it is to concentrate for any length of time. B. seniors take longer to complete tasks but with greater accuracy. C. old people use both parts of their brain more than young people. D. older people use their brains differently but achieve the same result. E. the speed of our brain decreases with age. F. older people do not cope well with new technology. Questions 8-12 Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN ONE WORD from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in spaces 8-12 of your answer sheet. People’s bodies and 8 __________ grow older at varying stages. As we age our senses take longer to process information and our aptitude for recalling 9 __________ also decreases. However, older people’s brains do have several advantages. Firstly, they can call upon both the 10 __________ and 11 __________ which is already stored in their brain. Secondly, although the 12__________ of each side of their brain is reduced, they are able to use both sides at once. Robotic approach to crop breeding A The Australian sunflower industry is the major source of polyunsaturated fatty acids found in margarines and spreads. Recognised as the type of fatty acid most able to protect against heart disease, it is in everybody’s best interest that Australia has a competitive and healthy sunflower industry, but in Australia, there is a constant struggle with the harsh climate. However, thanks to one special robot, farmers may be able to win the battle against drought. B Dr Chris Lambrides, a research fellow at the University of Queensland, is nearing the end of a project that aims to develop more drought tolerant sunflowers by selecting flowers that use water more efficiently. He’s done this with the help of a robot developed by the Australian National University’s Research School of Biological Sciences. C Plants undergo photosynthesis to produce energy in the form of sugar. This involves allowing carbon dioxide to enter the leaves through pores called stomata. Transpiration is the mechanism by which plants lose water through their leaves. This system is thought to facilitate the passage of minerals through the plant and is vital for healthy plants. D However, in conditions of drought, the plants that can use the available water efficiently and lose less to the environment will be more likely to thrive and, in a commercial sense become more profitable. These plants are classified as having a high transpiration efficiency. When plants transpire, the leaves become cooler due to evaporation. Therefore, by measuring the temperature of the leaves, scientists can determine how much water is being lost through transpiration. E When the project first began, the researchers used hand-held infrared thermometers to measure the temperature difference between leaves of different varieties of sunflowers in an experimental plot. Wind can affect leaf temperature, and the research team discovered that its initial approach did not cater for changes in wind speed, which could not be controlled as an experimental variable. The team, therefore, needed a technique to measure temperature continuously that would allow it to examine the effects of other variables such as humidity. They needed a robot. F They designed a robot with two infrared thermometers set at 1800 to each other. The robot runs on an oblong track around the experimental plot and the thermometers operate on each side of the track. In order to minimize any variables from the two thermometers, they are rotated 1800 at the beginning of each run and the results are averaged. The infrared thermometers can be rotated on an angle to examine different parts of the foliage. G The robot is also able to detect light intensity. It has a garage on the track, where it waits until the light intensity is high enough to give useful results. If the skies darken due to rain, heavy cloud cover or sunset, the robot makes its way back to the garage to wait. H The main difficulty faced by the research group was to find an agronomist who could grow the perfect crop of sunflowers. The sunflower canopy had to be complete, with no visible soil, 50 that the thermometers would only measure the temperature of the plants and not the surrounding environment. Eight varieties of sunflower were examined. The data collected by the robot has been used by the research team to determine which variety has the highest transpiration efficiency. I This is not the first time such methods have been used to determine drought-resistance in plants. The team and their robot have already made a major breakthrough in the Australian wheat industry with Drysdale Wheat, which signalled the arrival of a new technique for selecting drought-resistant species. Questions 13-16 Complete the sentences with words taken from the passage. Use NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet 13 In terms of our health, sunflowers are important in defending humans against …………………………………… 14 The research team wanted to find a sunflower that could cope well in conditions …………………………………… 15 The name of the process which is believed to help keep plants in good condition is …………………………………… 16 The research team had to rethink their initial approach when they realised they needed to measure the impact of external conditions such as…………………………………… Questions 17-24 The reading passage has nine paragraphs labelled A-I. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 5-12 on your answer sheet. 17 the precise growing conditions required to allow the experiment to work 18 a description of the how the robot operates 19 an explanation of two important processes used by plants 20 a reference to a previous study using a different crop 21 details of what the robot does when conditions are poor 22 the name of the group responsible for making the robot 23 the number of different types of sunflower tested 24 the purpose of taking the temperature of the plants How consumers decide Understanding consumers Consumers are creatures of habit: they buy the same products time and time again, and such is their familiarity with big brands and the colours and logos that represent them, that they can register a brand they like with barely any conscious thought process. The packaging of consumer products is, therefore, a crucial vehicle for delivering the brand and the product into our shopping baskets. Having said this, understanding how consumers make decisions, and the crucial role of packaging in this process has been a neglected area of research so far. This is surprising given that organisations invest huge amounts of money in developing packaging that they believe is effective – especially at the retail level. Our Centre for Decision Research at Leeds University’s Business School, in collaboration with Faraday Packaging, is now undertaking work in this area. It has already led to some important findings that challenge the ways in which organisations think about consumer choice. The research has focused on two fundamental types of thinking. On the one hand, there’s ‘heuristic processing’, which involves very shallow thought and is based on very simple rules: 1) buy what you recognize, 2) choose what you did last time, or 3) choose what a trusted source suggests. This requires comparatively little effort, and involves looking at – and thinking about – only a small amount of the product information and packaging. One can do this with little or no conscious thought. On the other hand, ‘systematic processing’ involves much deeper levels of thought. When people choose goods in this way, they engage in quite detailed analytical thinking – taking account of the product information, including its price, its perceived quality and so on. This form of thinking, which is both analytical and conscious, involves much more mental effort. The role of packaging is likely to be very different for each of these types of decision making. Under heuristic processing, for example, consumers may simply need to be able to distinguish the pack from those of competitors since they are choosing on the basis of what they usually do. Under these circumstances, the simple perceptual features of the pack may be critical – so that we can quickly discriminate what we choose from the other products on offer. Under systematic processing, however, product-related information may be more important, so the pack has to provide this in an easily identifiable form. Comparing competition Consumers will want to be able to compare the product with its competitors, so that they can determine which option is better for them. A crucial role of packaging in this situation is to communicate the characteristics of the product, highlighting its advantages over possible competitors. So, when are people likely to use a particular type of thinking? First, we know that people are cognitive misers; in other words, they are economical with their thinking because it requires some effort from them. Essentially, people only engage in effort-demanding systematic processing when the situation justifies it, for example when they are not tired or distracted and when the purchase is important to them. Second, people have an upper limit to the amount of information they can absorb. If we present too much, therefore, they will become confused. This, in turn, is likely to lead them to disengage and choose something else. Third, people often lack the knowledge or experience needed, so will not be able to deal with things they do not already understand, such as the ingredients of food products, for example. And fourth, people vary in the extent to which they enjoy thinking. Our research has differentiated between people with a high need for thinking – who routinely engage in analytical thinking – and those low in the need for cognition, who prefer to use very simple forms of thinking. Effectiveness varies This work has an important impact on packaging in that what makes packaging effective is likely to vary according to the type of processing strategy that consumers use when choosing between products. You need to understand how consumers are selecting your products if you are to develop packaging that is relevant. Furthermore, testing the effectiveness of your packaging can be ineffective if the methods you are employing concern one form of thinking (e.g. a focus group involving analytical thinking) but your consumers are purchasing in the other mode (i.e. the heuristic, shallow form of thinking). For the packaging industry, it is important that retailers identify their key goals. Sustaining a consumer’s commitment to a product may involve packaging that is distinctive at the heuristic level (if the consumers can recognize the product they will buy it) but without encouraging consumers to engage in systematic processing (prompting deeper level thinking that would include making comparisons with other products). Conversely, getting consumers to change brands may involve developing packaging that includes information that does stimulate systematic processing and thus encourages consumers to challenge their usual choice of product. Our work is investigating these issues, and the implications they have for developing effective packaging. Questions 25-30 Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage? Write answers in your answer sheet write: TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 25 Little research has been done on the link between packaging and consumers choosing a product. 26 A person who buys what another person recommends is using heuristic thinking. 27 Heuristic processing requires more energy than systematic processing. 28 The concept of heuristic processing was thought up by Dr Maule’s team. 29 A consumer who considers how mucha product costs, is using systematic processing. 30 For heuristic processing, packaging must be similar to other products. Questions 31 and 32 Choose the correct answer A, B, C or D and write the answers in your answer sheet. 31 When trying to determine how effective packaging is, testing can be made ‘ineffective’ if A. you rely upon a very narrow focus group. B. your consumers use only heuristic thinking. C. the chosen consumers use only shallow thinking. D. your tests do not match the consumers’ thinking type. 32 If a retailer wants consumers to change brands their packaging needs to be A. informative. B. distinctive. C. familiar. D. colourful. Questions 33-37 Complete the summary below. Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 33-37 on your answer sheet Comparing competition For consumers who want to compare products, it is important that your packaging stresses the 33 __________ of your product. We know that people only use systematic processing if the 34__________. makes it necessary or desirable. We also know that too much 35 __________ could make consumers choose another product. Furthermore, consumers may not fully understand details such as the 36__________ of a product. While some people like using systematic processing, others like to think in a 37 __________ way. Answers 1. B 2. D 3. A 4. E 5. C 6. B 7. D 8. minds 9. memories 10. knowledge 11. experience 12. speed 13. heart disease 14. drought 15. transpiration 16. wind 17. H 18. F 19. C 20. I 21. G 22. B 23. H 24. D 25. True 26. True 27. False 28. Not given 29. True 30. False 31. D 32. A 33. advantages/ characteristics 34. situation 35. information 36. ingredients 37. simple

Depression A. It is often more difficult for outsiders and non-sufferers to understand mental rather than physical illness in others. While it may be easy for us to sympathise with individuals living with the burden of a physical illness or disability, there is often a stigma attached to being mentally ill, or a belief that such conditions only exist in individuals who lack the strength of character to cope with the real world. The pressures of modern life seem to have resulted in an increase in cases of emotional disharmony and government initiatives in many countries have, of late, focussed on increasing the general public’s awareness and sympathy towards sufferers of mental illness and related conditions. B. Clinical depression, or ‘major depressive disorder’, a state of extreme sadness or despair, is said to affect up to almost 20% of the population at some point in their lives prior to the age of 40. Studies have shown that this disorder is the leading cause of disability in North America; in the UK almost 3 million people are said to be diagnosed with some form of depression at any one time, and experts believe that as many as a further 9 million other cases may go undiagnosed. World Health Organisation projections indicate that clinical depression may become the second most significant cause of disability’ on a global scale by 2020. However, such figures are not unanimously supported, as some experts believe that the diagnostic criteria used to identify՛ the condition are not precise enough, leading to other types of depression being wrongly classified as ‘clinical’. C. Many of us may experience periods of low morale or mood and feelings of dejection, as a natural human response to negative events in our lives such as bereavement, redundancy or breakdown of a relationship. Some of us may even experience periods of depression and low levels of motivation which have no tangible reason or trigger. Clinical depression is classified as an on-going state of negativity, with no tangible cause, where sufferers enter a spiral of persistent negative thinking, often experiencing irritability, perpetual tiredness and listlessness. Sufferers of clinical depression are said to be at higher risk of resorting to drug abuse or even suicide attempts than the rest of the population. D. Clinical depression is generally diagnosed when an individual is observed to exhibit an excessively depressed mood and/or ‘anhedonia’ – an inability to experience pleasure from positive experiences such as enjoying a meal or pleasurable social interaction – for a period of two weeks or more, in conjunction with five or more additional recognised symptoms. These additional symptoms may include overwhelming feelings of sadness; inability to sleep, or conversely, excessive sleeping; feelings of guilt, nervousness, abandonment or fear; inability to concentrate; interference with memory capabilities; fixation with death or extreme change in eating habits and associated weight gain or loss. E. Clinical depression was originally solely attributed to chemical imbalance in the brain, and while anti-depressant drugs which work to optimise levels of ‘feel good’ chemicals – serotonin and norepinephrine – are still commonly prescribed today, experts now believe that onset of depression may be caused by a number, and often combination of, physiological and socio-psychological factors. Treatment approaches vary quite dramatically from place to place and are often tailored to an individual’s particular situation; however, some variation of a combination of medication and psychotherapy is most commonly used. The more controversial electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may also be used where initial approaches fail. In extreme cases, where an individual exhibits behaviour which Indicates that they may cause physical harm to themselves, psychiatric hospitalisation may be necessary as a form of intensive therapy. F. Some recent studies, such as those published by the Archives of General Psychiatry, hold that around a quarter of diagnosed clinical depression cases should actually be considered as significant but none-the-less ordinary sadness and maladjustment to coping with trials in life, indicating that in such cases, psychotherapy rather than treatment through medication is required. Recovery as a result of psychotherapy tends, in most cases, to be a slower process than improvements related to medication; however, improvements as a result of psychological treatment, once achieved, have been observed in some individuals to be more long term and sustainable than those attained through prescription drugs. Various counselling approaches exist, though all focus on enhancing the subject’s ability to function on a personal and interpersonal level. Sessions involve encouragement of an individual to view themselves and their relationships in a more positive manner, with the intention of helping patients to replace negative thoughts with a more positive outlook. G. It is apparent that susceptibility to depression can run in families. However, it remains unclear as to whether this is truly an inherited genetic trait or whether biological and environmental factors common to family members may be at the root of the problem. In some cases, sufferers of depression may need to unlearn certain behaviours and attitudes they have established in life and develop new coping strategies designed to help them deal with problems they may encounter, undoing patterns of destructive behaviour they may have observed in their role models and acquired for themselves. Questions 1 – 5 Reading Passage 1 has seven sections A-G. Which paragraph contains the following information? 1. Details of treatment alternatives for worst case scenario depression. 2. Information regarding cases where drug treatment is inappropriate. 3. Details of how those diagnosed with depression may be more vulnerable than other members of society, 4. Information about society’s attitudes to depression and similar illnesses. 5. Information regarding why estimates of incidence of future growth in cases may be overly exaggerated. Questions 6 – 8 Choose THREE letters A-G. Which THREE of the following statements are true of depression? A. Governments have generally failed to take action to educate the general public about the condition. B. The highest reported number of cases are in the USA. C. In Britain, it is likely that there are more individuals who live with the condition without the help of a doctor than those being officially treated. D. Clinical depression may be triggered by divorce. E. Lethargy may be one of the symptoms of depression. F. Prescribed pharmaceuticals have radically changed over recent years. G. Approaches to treating depression are not universal. Questions 9 – 13 Complete the summary of paragraphs F and G with the list of words A-L below. Whilst recovery through counselling rather than medicine may be more (9)__________ , results once achieved may have more (10)___________with some patients. Counselling sessions are geared towards improving the subject’s relationship with others and their own (11)__________, encouraging sufferers of depression to take on a more (12)__________ outlook. The extent to which genetic disposition and sociological factors impact on state of mind is (13)__________. Many people undergoing counselling therapy do so with the purpose of unlearning negative behaviour and reactions. A. gratifying B. longevity C. ambition D. optimistic E. pessimistic F. difficulty G. inconclusive H. self-image I. gradual J. unequivocal K. immediate L. categorical THE FACE OF MODERN MAN? A. In response to the emergence of the ‘metro-sexual’ male, In other words, an urban, sophisticated man who is fashionable, well-groomed and unashamedly committed to ensuring his appearance is the best it can be, a whole new industry has developed. According to research conducted on behalf of a leading health and beauty retailer in the UK, the market for male cosmetics and related products has grown by 800% since the year 2000 and is expected to continue to increase significantly. The male grooming products market has become the fastest growing sector within the beauty and cosmetics industry, currently equivalent to around 1.5 billion pounds per annum. B. Over the last decade, a large number of brands and companies catering for enhancement of the male image have been successfully established, such operations ranging from male-only spas, boutiques, personal hygiene products, hair and skin care ranges, and male magazines with a strong leaning towards men’s fashion. Jamie Cawley, proprietor of a successful chain of London-based male grooming boutiques, holds that his company’s success in this highly competitive market can be attributed to the ‘exclusivity’ tactics they have employed, in that their products and services are clearly defined as male- orientated and distinctly separate to feminine products offered by other organisations. However, market analyst, Kim Sawyer, believes that future growth in the market can also be achieved through sale of unisex products marketed to both genders, this strategy becoming increasingly easy to implement as men’s interest in appearance and grooming has become more of a social norm. C. Traditionalists such as journalist Jim Howrard contend that the turn-around in male attitudes which has led to the success of the industry w’ould have been inconceivable a decade ago, given the conventional male role, psyche and obligation to exude masculinity; however, behavioural scientist Professor Ruth Chesterton argues that the metro-sexual man of today is in fact a modern incarnation of the ‘dandy’ of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. British dandies of that period, who were often of middle class backgrounds but imitated aristocratic lifestyles, were devoted to cultivation of their physical appearance, development of a refined demeanour and hedonistic pursuits. In France, she adds, dandyism, in contrast, was also strongly linked to political ideology and embraced by youths wishing to clearly define themselves from members of the working class revolutionary social groups of the period. D. Over recent decades, according to sociologist Ben Cameron, gender roles for both sexes have become less defined. According to research, he says, achievement of status and success have become less important in younger generations of men, as has the need to repress emotions. Cameron defines the traditional masculine role within western societies – hegemonic masculinity – as an expectation that males demonstrate physical strength and fitness, be decisive, self-assured, rational, successful and in control. Meeting this list of criteria and avoiding situations of demonstrating weakness, being overly emotional or in any way ’inferior’, he says, has placed a great deal of pressure on many members of the male population. So restrictive can society’s pressure to behave in a ‘masculine’ fashion on males be, Professor Chesterton states that in many situations men may respond in a way they deem acceptable to society, given their perceived gender role, rather than giving what they may actually consider to be the best and most objective response. E. Jim Howard says that learning and acquiring gender identity makes up a huge component of a child’s socialisation and that a child who exhibits non-standard behavioural characteristics often encounters social and self image difficulties due to the adverse reactions of their peers. According to Kim Sawyer, media images and messages also add to pressures associated with the male image, stating that even in these modern and changing times, hegemonic masculinity is often idolised and portrayed as the definitive male persona. F. Whilst male stereotypes and ideals vary from culture to culture, according to Professor Chesterton, a universal trait in stereotypical male behaviour is an increased likelihood to take risks than is generally found in female behaviour patterns. For this reason, she attributes such behaviour to the influence of genetic predisposition as opposed to socially learned behaviour. Men, she says, are three times more likely to die due to accident than females, a strong indication he says of their greater willingness to involve themselves in precarious situations. Ben Cameron also says that an attitude of invincibility is more dominant in males and is a predominant factor in the trend for fewer medical checkups in males and late diagnosis of chronic and terminal illness than in their more cautious and vigilant female counterparts. G. Jamie Cawley, however, remains optimistic that the metro-sexual culture will continue and that what society accepts as the face of masculinity will continue to change. He attributes this to a male revolt against the strict confines of gender roles, adding that such changes of attitudes have led and will continue to lead to establishment of greater equality between the sexes. Questions 14 – 18 Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs A-G. Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-D and F-G from the list of headings below. List of Headings i. Basis and predictions ii. Revolution or recurrence? iii. Servicing a growing demand iv. The surfacing of a new phenomenon v. A long-held mindset and its downsides vi. Influence on minors vii. Hereditary predilection viii. Effects of external pressures Example: Paragraph E; Answer: viii 14. Paragraph B 15. Paragraph C 16. Paragraph D 17. Paragraph F 18. Paragraph G Questions 19 – 22 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2? TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 19. Sales in the female health and beauty market have slightly declined over recent years. 20. The rise of ‘dandyism’ in England and France is attributed to similar factors. 21. Emotional reaction is contradictory to hegemonic masculine behaviour. 22. There is a correlation between men’s belief that they are indestructible and their decreased likelihood to seek medical advice. Questions 23 – 27 Look at the following list of statements (Questions 23-27) based on changes in male image and behavior. Match each statement with the correct person A-E. 23. Male behaviour patterns have changed in a way that would have been considered implausible in the past. 24. Traditional benchmarks of masculinity are often exacerbated by the press. 25. Metro-sexual culture has developed as a response to modern men’s dissatisfaction with traditional images. 26. The need to conform to society’s expectations of male behaviour may impede men’s decision-making and judgement. 27. There is potential in a market which makes no differentiation between products for males and females. List of Contributors A. Jamie Cawley B. Kim Sawyer C. Jim Howard D. Professor Ruth Chesterton E. Ben Cameron CLINICAL TRIALS A. The benefits of vitamins to our well-being are now familiar to most; however, when the link between diets lacking in citrus fruits and the development of the affliction ‘scurvy’ in sailors was first discovered by James Lind in 1747, the concept of vitamins was yet to be discovered. Scurvy, which causes softening of the gums, oral bleeding and, in extreme cases, tooth loss, is now known to present as a result of lack of Vitamin C in the diet. Additional symptoms include depression, liver spots on the skin – particularly arms and legs – loss of colour in the face and partial immobility; high incidence of the ailment aboard ships took an enormous toll on the crew’s ability to complete essential tasks while at sea. B. Suggestions that citrus fruit may lower the incidence or indeed prevent scurvy had been made as early as 1600. It was Lind, however, who would conduct the first clinical trial by studying the effect within scientific experimental parameters. However, while the correlation between consuming citrus fruit and avoidance of scurvy was established, the preventative properties were attributed to the presence of acids in the fruit and not what would later be identified as vitamin content. C. Lind’s subjects for his trial consisted of twelve sailors already exhibiting symptoms of scurvy. These individuals were split into six groups; each pair common diet. Pair 1 were rationed a daily quart of cider, pair 2 elixir of vitriol, pair 3 a given quantity of vinegar, pair 4 seawater, pair 5 oranges and a lemon and pair 6 barley water. Despite the trial having to be aborted after day five, when supplies of fruit were depleted, the findings of the interventional study showed that only the control group who were given fruit supplements showed any significant improvement in their condition (one had, in fact, recovered to the extent that he was fit enough to return to work). The immediate impact on sailors’ health and incidence of scurvy on board ship was, however, limited as Lind and other physicians remained convinced that the curative effect was acid based. Therefore, while consumption of citrus fruit was recommended, it was often replaced by cheaper acid supplements. The preventative Qualities of citrus fruit against scurvy were not truly recognised until 1800, though throughout the latter part of the 1700s, lemon juice was increasingly administered as a cure for sailors already afflicted. D. Nowadays, the implementation of findings discovered in clinical trials into mainstream medicine remains an arduous and lengthy process and the clinical trials themselves represent only a small stage of the process of developing a new drug from research stage to launch in the marketplace. On average, for every thousand drugs conceived, only one of the thousand actually makes it to the stage of clinical trial, other projects being abandoned for a variety of reasons. Stages which need to be fulfilled prior to clinical trial – where the treatment is actually tested on human subjects -include discovery, purification, characterisation and laboratory testing. E. A new pharmaceutical for treatment of a disease such as cancer typically takes a period of 6 years or more before reaching the stage of clinical trial. Since legislation requires subjects participating in such trials to be monitored for a considerable period of time so that side-effects and benefits can be assessed correctly, a further eight years typically passes between the stage of a drug entering clinical trial and being approved for general use. One of the greatest barriers to clinical trial procedures is availability of subjects willing to participate, Criteria for selection is rigorous and trials where subjects are required to be suffering from the disease in question, experience tremendous recruitment difficulties as individuals already vulnerable due to the effects of their condition, are often reluctant to potentially put their health at higher levels of risk. F. Clinical trials are conducted in line with a strict protocol and the stages of a trial are generally defined by five distinct phases. A drug that is deemed safe and effective enough to reach the end of stage three is most often, at that point, approved for use in mainstream medicine. Phase 0 involves a first-in-human trial (usually conducted using a small population often to fifteen subjects) with the purpose of ascertaining that the drug’s effect is, in fact, the same as predicted in pre-clinical studies. If no concerns are raised, the drug then enters Phase 1 of trial where a modest selection (usually between twenty and eighty subjects) of usually healthy volunteers, is exposed to the drug. However, for HIV and cancer drugs, this stage is conducted using patients suffering from the condition in question. There are two main variations of Phase I testing, these being SAD (single ascending dose) and MAD (multiple ascending dose). The former involves a single administration of a drug at a pre-determined level to one group of subjects, and the second involves administration of a pre-determined sequence of dosages. G. Phases 0 and 1 are geared towards establishing the safety of a pharmaceutical and once this has been confirmed, drugs pass into Phase II testing where, while safety continues to be monitored, the drug’s effectiveness is also assessed using a larger group of subjects, ranging from twenty up to three hundred. In some trials, Phase II is regarded as involving two sub-stages, in that Phase 11(a) may be concerned with establishing optimum dosage levels and Phase 11(b) to evaluate effectiveness. Phase III is the most expensive, time-consuming and complex stage of the trial process, often involving as many as 3000 patients. At this stage, a new drug’s effectiveness is rigorously tested and compared to that of the best of the existing alternatives already approved and in common use. Where research indicates that a pharmaceutical has passed all requirements of Phases 0, I, II and III, submissions to relevant regulatory and licensing bodies are then made. H. The final phase of clinical testing, Phase IV, is conducted over a lengthy period of time post-launch for general usage. This stage is, in essence, a safety net which involves continued monitoring of the drug, its properties and side-effects through which any long term adverse reactions, which remained undetected in the pre-launch clinical testing time frame can be discovered. Identification of harmful effects at this stage, on occasion, has led to withdrawal of a drug from the market; for example, as was the case with cerivastin, a cholesterol-lowering drug, which was later found to have an adverse effect on muscle reaction which, on occasion, had fatal consequences. Questions 28 – 31 Complete the sentences below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. 28. In advanced cases of scurvy suffers may experience ___________ along with numerous other symptoms. 29. Fruit adds were mistakenly heralded as having __________ in incidents of scurvy prior to the identification of vitamins. 30. Lind’s subjects for the first clinical trial were seamen who were at the time of _________ the condition in question. 31. All groups in Lind’s experiment were given a _________ along with specific rations which were varied for each control group. Questions 32 – 35 Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D 32. The first clinical trial was conducted for only 5 days because A. that period of time was the planned protocol. B. the subjects in the relevant control group had already recovered. C. resources fundamental to the experiment were used up. D. those taking part in the trial were too sick to continue. 33. The impact of findings from the trial were not used to full potential because A. Lind failed to recommend consumption of citrus fruit. B. ineffective substitutes were often made available. C. other physicians were unconvinced by his evidence. D. the trial was not conducted over a long enough period to be valid. 34. One of the greatest hindrances to clinical testing today is A. low volunteer rates. B. the poor success rate. C. the strict protocol. D. shortage of laboratory staff. 35. Clinical testing for HIV and cancer drugs differs from usual procedures because A. the clinical trial phase is much longer. B. the MAD instead of the SAD approach is used during Phase I. C. subjects exhibiting no symptoms of the illness are not used. D. effectiveness is more rigorously tested than safety. Questions 36 – 40 Complete the flowchart. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. Phases of Clinical Testing Phase 0: 10-15 subjects tested to confirm assumptions made in the (36)____________ stages were accurate. Phase 1: 2 different approaches may be used. One involving one-off exposure to the drug the other involving a (37)________________. Phase 2: May involve two sub-stages to establish (38)________________ quantities and usefulness. Phase 3: The most (39)______________, protracted and costly of all stages. Submissions made post-testing at this stage of all is agreeable. Phase 4: Precautionary monitoring continues post-launch. Any serious issues uncovered can, on occasion, result in 40________________. Answers 1. E 2. F 3. C 4. A 5. B 6. C 7. E 8. G 9. I 10. B 11. H 12. D 13. G 14. iii 15. ii 16. v 17. vii 18. i 19. not given 20. false 21. true 22. true 23. C 24. B 25. A 26. D 27. B 28. tooth loss 29. preventive properties 30. exhibiting symptoms 31. common diet 32. C 33. B 34. A 35. C 36. pre-clinical 37. sequence 38. optimum 39. complex 40. withdrawal

A Spark, A Flint; How Fire Leapt To Life The control of fire was the first and perhaps greatest of humanity’s steps towards a life-enhancing technology. To early man, fire was a divine gift randomly delivered in the form of lightning, forest fire or burning lava. Unable to make flame for themselves, the earliest people probably stored fire by keeping slow burning logs alight or by carrying charcoal in pots. How and where man learnt how to produce flame at will is unknown. It was probably a secondary invention, accidentally made during tool-making operations with wood or stone. Studies of primitive societies suggest that the earliest method of making fire was through friction. European peasants would insert a wooden drill in a round hole and rotate it briskly between their palms this process could be speeded up by wrapping a cord around the drill and pulling on each end. The Ancient Greeks used lenses or concave mirrors to concentrate the sun’s rays and burning glasses were also used by Mexican Aztecs and the Chinese. Percussion methods of fire-lighting date back to Paleolithic times, when some Stone Age tool-makers discovered that chipping flints produced sparks. The technique became more efficient after the discovery of iron, about 5000 vears ago In Arctic North America, the Eskimos produced a slow-burning spark by striking quartz against iron pyrites, a compound that contains sulphur. The Chinese lit their fires by striking porcelain with bamboo. In Europe, the combination of steel, flint and tinder remained the main method of fire-lighting until the mid 19th century. Fire-lighting was revolutionised by the discovery of phosphorus, isolated in 1669 by a German alchemist trying to transmute silver into gold. Impressed by the element’s combustibility, several 17th century chemists used it to manufacture fire-lighting devices, but the results were dangerously inflammable. With phosphorus costing the equivalent of several hundred pounds per ounce, the first matches were expensive. The quest for a practical match really began after 1781 when a group of French chemists came up with the Phosphoric Candle or Ethereal Match, a sealed glass tube containing a twist of paper tipped with phosphorus. When the tube was broken, air rushed in, causing the phosphorus to self- combust. An even more hazardous device, popular in America, was the Instantaneous Light Box — a bottle filled with sulphuric acid into which splints treated with chemicals were dipped. The first matches resembling those used today were made in 1827 by John Walker, an English pharmacist who borrowed the formula from a military rocket-maker called Congreve. Costing a shilling a box, Congreves were splints coated with sulphur and tipped with potassium chlorate. To light them, the user drew them quickly through folded glass paper. Walker never patented his invention, and three years later it was copied by a Samuel Jones, who marketed his product as Lucifers. About the same time, a French chemistry student called Charles Sauria produced the first “strike-anywhere” match by substituting white phosphorus for the potassium chlorate in the Walker formula. However, since white phosphorus is a deadly poison, from 1845 match-makers exposed to its fumes succumbed to necrosis, a disease that eats away jaw-bones. It wasn’t until 1906 that the substance was eventually banned. That was 62 years after a Swedish chemist called Pasch had discovered non-toxic red or amorphous phosphorus, a development exploited commercially by Pasch’s compatriot J E Lundstrom in 1885. Lundstrom’s safety matches were safe because the red phosphorus was non-toxic; it was painted on to the striking surface instead of the match tip, which contained potassium chlorate with a relatively high ignition temperature of 182 degrees centigrade. America lagged behind Europe in match technology and safety standards. It wasn’t until 1900 that the Diamond Match Company bought a French patent for safety matches — but the formula did not work properly in the different climatic conditions prevailing in America and it was another 11 years before scientists finally adapted the French patent for the US. The Americans, however, can claim several “firsts” in match technology and marketing. In 1892 the Diamond Match Company pioneered book matches. The innovation didn’t catch on until after 1896, when a brewery had the novel idea of advertising its product in match books. Today book matches are the most widely used type in the US, with 90 percent handed out free by hotels, restaurants and others. Other American innovations include an anti-afterglow solution to prevent the match from smoldering after it has been blown out; and the waterproof match, which lights after eight hours in water. Questions 1-8 Complete the summary below. Choose your answers from the box given below and write them in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet. NB There are more words than spaces so you will not use them all you may use any of the words more than once. EARLY FIRE-LIGHTING METHODS They tried to (1)…………………….burning logs or charcoal (2)…………………… that they could create fire themselves. It is suspected that the first man-made flames were produced by (3)…………………The very first fire-lighting methods involved the creation of (4)……………………by, for example, rapidly (5)……………………. a wooden stick in a round hole. The use of (6)………………………… or persistent chipping was also widespread in Europe and among other peoples such as the Chinese and (7)…………………….. European practice of this method continued until the 1850s (8)…………………….the discovery of phosphorus some years earlier. Mexicansrandomrotatingdespitepreserverealisingsunlightlackingheavenlypercussionchancefrictionunawarewithoutmakeheatingeskimossurpriseduntilsmoke Questions 9-15 Look at the following notes that have been made about the matches described in Reading passage. Decide which type of match (A-H) corresponds with each description and write your answers in the boxes 9-15. Notes 9. made using a les poisonous type of phosphorus 10. identical to a previous type of match 11. caused a deadly illness 12. first to look like modern matches 13. first matches used for advertising 14. relied on an airtight glass container 15. made with the help of an army design Type of matches A the Ethereal Match B the instantaneous lightbox C congreves D lucifers E the first strike anywhere match F Lundstrom’s safety match G book matches H waterproof matches Zoo Conservation Programmes One of London Zoo’s recent advertisements caused me some irritation, so patently did it distort reality. Headlined “Without zoos you might as well tell these animals to get stuffed”, it was bordered with illustrations of several endangered species and went on to extol the myth that without zoos like London Zoo these animals “will almost certainly disappear forever”. With the zoo world’s rather mediocre record on conservation, one might be forgiven for being slightly sceptical about such an advertisement. Zoos were originally created as places of entertainment, and their suggested involvement with conservation didn’t seriously arise until about 30 years ago, when the Zoological Society of London held the first formal international meeting on the subject. Eight years later, a series of world conferences took place, entitled “The Breeding of Endangered Species”, and from this point onwards conservation became the zoo community’s buzzword. This commitment has now been clearly defined in The World Zoo Conservation Strategy (WZGS, September 1993), which although an important and welcome document does seem to be based on an unrealistic optimism about the nature of the zoo industry. The WZCS estimates that there are about 10,000 zoos in the world, of which around 1,000 represent a core of quality collections capable of participating in co-ordinated conservation programmes. This is probably the document’s first failing, as I believe that 10,000 is a serious underestimate of the total number of places masquerading as zoological establishments. Of course it is difficult to get accurate data but, to put the issue into perspective, I have found that, in a year of working in Eastern Europe, I discover fresh zoos on almost a weekly basis. The second flaw in the reasoning of the WZCS document is the naive faith it places in its 1,000 core zoos. One would assume that the calibre of these institutions would have been carefully examined, but it appears that the criterion for inclusion on this select list might merely be that the zoo is a member of a zoo federation or association. This might be a good starting point, working on the premise that members must meet certain standards, but again the facts don’t support the theory. The greatly respected American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA) has had extremely dubious members, and in the UK the Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland has occasionally had members that have been roundly censured in the national press. These include Robin Hill Adventure Park on the Isle of Wight, which many considered the most notorious collection of animals in the country. This establishment, which for years was protected by the Isle’s local council (which viewed it as a tourist amenity), was finally closed down following a damning report by a veterinary inspector appointed under the terms of the Zoo Licensing Act 1981. As it was always a collection of dubious repute, one is obliged to reflect upon the standards that the Zoo Federation sets when granting membership. The situation is even worse in developing countries where little money is available for redevelopment and it is hard to see a way of incorporating collections into the overall scheme of the WZCS. Even assuming that the WZCS’s 1,000 core zoos are all of a high standard complete with scientific staff and research facilities, trained and dedicated keepers, accommodation that permits normal or natural behaviour, and a policy of co-operating fully with one another what might be the potential for conservation? Colin Tudge, author of Last Animals at the Zoo (Oxford University Press, 1992), argues that “if the world”s zoos worked together in co-operative breeding programmes, then even without further expansion they could save around 2,000 species of endangered land vertebrates’. This seems an extremely optimistic proposition from a man who must be aware of the failings and weaknesses of the zoo industry the man who, when a member of the council of London Zoo, had to persuade the zoo to devote more of its activities to conservation. Moreover, where are the facts to support such optimism? Today approximately 16 species might be said to have been “saved” by captive breeding programmes, although a number of these can hardly be looked upon as resounding successes. Beyond that, about a further 20 species are being seriously considered for zoo conservation programmes. Given that the international conference at London Zoo was held 30 years ago, this is pretty slow progress, and a long way off Tudge’s target of 2,000. Questions 16-22 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 2? In boxes 16-22 write YES if the statement agrees with the writer NO if the statement contradicts the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 16 London Zoo’s advertisements are dishonest. 17 Zoos made an insignificant contribution to conservation up until 30 years ago. 18 The WZCS document is not known in Eastern Europe. 19 Zoos in the WZCS select list were carefully inspected. 20 No one knew how the animals were being treated at Robin Hill Adventure Park. 21 Colin Tudge was dissatisfied with the treatment of animals at London Zoo. 22 The number of successful zoo conservation programmes is unsatisfactory. Questions 23-25 Choose the appropriate letters A-D and write them in boxes 23-25 on your answer sheet. 23 What were the objectives of the WZCS document? A to improve the calibre of zoos world-wide B to identify zoos suitable for conservation practice C to provide funds for zoos in underdeveloped countries D to list the endangered species of the world 24 Why does the writer refer to Robin Hill Adventure Park? A to support the Isle of Wight local council B to criticise the 1981 Zoo Licensing Act C to illustrate a weakness in the WZCS document D to exemplify the standards in AAZPA zoos 25 What word best describes the writer’s response to Colin Tudges’ prediction on captive breeding programmes? A disbelieving B impartial C prejudiced D accepting Questions 26-28 The writer mentions a number of factors which lead him to doubt the value of the WZCS document. Which THREE of the following factors are mentioned? Write your answers (A-F) in boxes 26-28 on your answer sheet. List of Factors A the number of unregistered zoos in the world B the lack of money in developing countries C the actions of the Isle of Wight local council D the failure of the WZCS to examine the standards of the “core zoos” E the unrealistic aim of the WZCS in view of the number of species “saved” to date F the policies of WZCS zoo managers Architecture – Reaching For The Sky Architecture is the art and science of designing buildings and structures. A building reflects the scientific and technological achievements of the age as well as the ideas and aspirations of the designer and client. The appearance of individual buildings, however, is often controversial. The use of an architectural style cannot be said to start or finish on a specific date. Neither is it possible to say exactly what characterises a particular movement. But the origins of what is now generally known as modern architecture can be traced back to the social and technological changes of the 18th and 19th centuries. Instead of using timber, stone and traditional building techniques, architects began to explore ways of creating buildings by using the latest technology and materials such as steel, glass and concrete strengthened steel bars, known as reinforced concrete. Technological advances also helped bring about the decline of rural industries and an increase in urban populations as people moved to the towns to work in the new factories. Such rapid and uncontrolled growth helped to turn parts of cities into slums. By the 1920s architects throughout Europe were reacting against the conditions created by industrialisation. A new style of architecture emerged to reflect more idealistic notions for the future. It was made possible by new materials and construction techniques and was known as Modernism. By the 1930s many buildings emerging from this movement were designed in the International Style. This was largely characterised by the bold use of new materials and simple, geometric forms, often with white walls supported by stilt¬like pillars. These were stripped of unnecessary decoration that would detract from their primary purpose — to be used or lived in. Walter Gropius, Charles Jeanneret (better known as Le Corbusier) and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe were among the most influential of the many architects who contributed to the development of Modernism in the first half of the century. But the economic depression of the 1930s and the second world war (1939-45) prevented their ideas from being widely realised until the economic conditions improved and war-torn cities had to be rebuilt. By the 1950s, the International Style had developed into a universal approach to building, which standardised the appearance of new buildings in cities across the world. Unfortunately, this Modernist interest in geometric simplicity and function became exploited for profit. The rediscovery of quick-and-easy-to-handle reinforced concrete and an improved ability to prefabricate building sections meant that builders could meet the budgets of commissioning authorities and handle a renewed demand for development quickly and cheaply. But this led to many badly designed buildings, which discredited the original aims of Modernism. Influenced by Le Corbusier’s ideas on town planning, every large British city built multi-storey housing estates in the 1960s. Mass- produced, low-cost high-rises seemed to offer a solution to the problem of housing a growing inner-city population. But far from meeting human needs, the new estates often proved to be windswept deserts lacking essential social facilities and services. Many of these buildings were poorly designed and constructed and have since been demolished. By the 1970s, a new respect for the place of buildings within the existing townscape arose. Preserving historic buildings or keeping only their facades (or fronts) grew common. Architects also began to make more use of building styles and materials that were traditional to the area. The architectural style usually referred to as High Tech was also emerging. It celebrated scientific and engineering achievements by openly parading the sophisticated techniques used in construction. Such buildings are commonly made of metal and glass; examples are Stansted airport and the Lloyd’s building in London. Disillusionment at the failure of many of the poor imitations of Modernist architecture led to interest in various styles and ideas from the past and present. By the 1980s the coexistence of different styles of architecture in the same building became known as Post Modern. Other architects looked back to the classical tradition. The trend in architecture now favours smaller scale building design that reflects a growing public awareness of environmental issues such as energy efficiency. Like the Modernists, people today recognise that a well designed environment improves the quality of life but is not necessarily achieved by adopting one well defined style of architecture. Twentieth century architecture will mainly be remembered for its tall buildings. They have been made possible by the development of light steel frames and safe passenger lifts. They originated in the US over a century ago to help meet the demand for more economical use of land. As construction techniques improved, the skyscraper became a reality. Questions 29-35 Complete the table below using information from Reading Passage 3. Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 29-35 on your answer sheet. PeriodStyle of PeriodBuilding MaterialsCharacteristicsBefore 18th centuryexample: traditional(29)…………………..1920sintroduction of (30)………………..steel, glass and concreteexploration of latest technology1930s – 1950s(31)…………………….geometric forms1960sdecline of Modernismpre-fabricated sections(32)……………………1970send of Modernist eratraditional materials(33)…………………of historic buildings1970sbeginning of (34)………………erametal and glasssophisticated techniques paraded1980sPost-Modernism(35)……………………… Questions 36-40 Reading Passage 3 describes a number of cause and effect relationships. Match each Cause (36-40) in List A, with its Effect (A-H) in List B. Write your answers (A-H) in boxes 36 40 on your answer sheet. NB There are more effects in List B than you will need, so you will not use all of them. You may use any effect more than once if you wish. List A CausesList B Effects36. A rapid movement of people from rural areas to cities is triggered by technological advance 37. Buildings become simple and functional 38. An economic depression and the second world war hit Europe 39. Multi-storey housing estates are built according to contemporary ideas on town planning 40. Less land must be used for buildingA The quality of life is improved B Architecture reflects the age C A number of these have been knocked down D Light steel frames and lifts are developed E Historical buildings are preserved F All decoration is removed G Parts of cities become slums H Modernist ideas cannot be put into practice until the second half of the 20th century Answers 1. preserve 2. unaware 3. chance 4. friction 5. rotating 6. percussion 7. eskimos 8. despite 9. F 10. D 11. E 12. C 13. G 14. A 15. C 16. yes 17. yes 18. not give 19. no 20. no 21. not given 22. yes 23. B 24. C 25. A 26. A 27. D 28. E 29. timber and stone 30. modernism 31. international style 32. badly designed building 33. preservation 34. high-tech 35. different styles together 36. G 37. F 38. H 39. C 40. D

Aphantasia: A life without mental images Most people can readily conjure images inside their head – known as their mind’s eye. But this year scientists have described a condition, aphantasia, in which some people are unable to visualise mental images. Niel Kenmuir, from Lancaster, has always had a blind mind’s eye. He knew he was different even in childhood. “My stepfather, when I couldn’t sleep, told me to count sheep, and he explained what he meant, I tried to do it and I couldn’t,” he says. “I couldn’t see any sheep jumping over fences, there was nothing to count.” Our memories are often tied up in images, think back to a wedding or first day at school. As a result, Niel admits, some aspects of his memory are “terrible”, but he is very good at remembering facts. And, like others with aphantasia, he struggles to recognise faces. Yet he does not see aphantasia as a disability, but simply a different way of experiencing life. Mind’s eye blind Ironically, Niel now works in a bookshop, although he largely sticks to the non-fiction aisles. His condition begs the question what is going on inside his picture-less mind. I asked him what happens when he tries to picture his fiancee. “This is the hardest thing to describe, what happens in my head when I think about things,” he says. “When I think about my fiancee there is no image, but I am definitely thinking about her, I know today she has her hair up at the back, she’s brunette. But I’m not describing an image I am looking at, I’m remembering features about her, that’s the strangest thing and maybe that is a source of some regret.” The response from his mates is a very sympathetic: “You’re weird.” But while Niel is very relaxed about his inability to picture things, it is a cause of distress for others. One person who took part in a study into aphantasia said he had started to feel “isolated” and “alone” after discovering that other people could see images in their heads. Being unable to reminisce about his mother years after her death led to him being “extremely distraught”. The super-visualiser At the other end of the spectrum is children’s book illustrator, Lauren Beard, whose work on the Fairytale Hairdresser series will be familiar to many six-year-olds. Her career relies on the vivid images that leap into her mind’s eye when she reads text from her author. When I met her in her box-room studio in Manchester, she was working on a dramatic scene in the next book. The text describes a baby perilously climbing onto a chandelier. “Straightaway I can visualise this grand glass chandelier in some sort of French kind of ballroom, and the little baby just swinging off it and really heavy thick curtains,” she says. “I think I have a strong imagination, so I can create the world and then keep adding to it so it gets sort of bigger and bigger in my mind and the characters too they sort of evolve. I couldn’t really imagine what it’s like to not imagine, I think it must be a bit of a shame really.” Not many people have mental imagery as vibrant as Lauren or as blank as Niel. They are the two extremes of visualisation. Adam Zeman, a professor of cognitive and behavioural neurology, wants to compare the lives and experiences of people with aphantasia and its polar-opposite hyperphantasia. His team, based at the University of Exeter, coined the term aphantasia this year in a study in the journal Cortex. Prof Zeman tells the BBC: “People who have contacted us say they are really delighted that this has been recognised and has been given a name, because they have been trying to explain to people for years that there is this oddity that they find hard to convey to others.” How we imagine is clearly very subjective – one person’s vivid scene could be another’s grainy picture. But Prof Zeman is certain that aphantasia is real. People often report being able to dream in pictures, and there have been reported cases of people losing the ability to think in images after a brain injury. He is adamant that aphantasia is “not a disorder” and says it may affect up to one in 50 people. But he adds: “I think it makes quite an important difference to their experience of life because many of us spend our lives with imagery hovering somewhere in the mind’s eye which we inspect from time to time, it’s a variability of human experience.” Questions 1–5 Do the following statements agree with the information in the IELTS reading text? In boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 1. Aphantasia is a condition, which describes people, for whom it is hard to see images in their imagination. 2. Niel Kenmuir was unable to count sheep in his head. 3. Many people with aphantasia struggle to remember personal traits of different people. 4. The author met Lauren Beard when she was working on a scene in her next book. 5. Different people expressed their satisfaction that the problem of aphantasia and hyperphantasia has finally been recognized. Questions 6–8 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write the correct letter in boxes 6–8 on your answer sheet. 6. People with aphantasia are generally good at: A Remembering faces B Remembering facts C Remembering traits D This condition has no advantages 7. Unlike Niel, Lauren: A Can visualise different objects B Can write books C Has aphantasia D Has no conditions 8. Adam Zeman wants to: A Cure aphantasia B Compare people with different conditions C Do researches D Learn more about aphantasia and hyperphantasia Questions 9–14 Complete the sentences below. Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. 9. Niel’s colleagues describe him as a………………………….. person. 10. Only a small fraction of people have imagination as…………………………. as Lauren does. 11. Hyperphantasia is………………………. to aphantasia. 12. Many people spend their lives with……………………………. somewhere in the mind’s eye. 13. Prof Zeman is………………………………. that aphantasia is not an illness. 14. Prof Zeman strongly believes that aphantasia is not a……………… As More Tech Start-Ups Stay Private, So Does the Money Not long ago, if you were a young, brash technologist with a world-conquering start-up idea, there was a good chance you spent much of your waking life working toward a single business milestone: taking your company public. Though luminaries of the tech industry have always expressed skepticism and even hostility toward the finance industry, tech’s dirty secret was that it looked to Wall Street and the ritual of a public offering for affirmation — not to mention wealth. But something strange has happened in the last couple of years: The initial public offering of stock has become déclassé. For start-up entrepreneurs and their employees across Silicon Valley, an initial public offering is no longer a main goal. Instead, many founders talk about going public as a necessary evil to be postponed as long as possible because it comes with more problems than benefits. “If you can get $200 million from private sources, then yeah, I don’t want my company under the scrutiny of the unwashed masses who don’t understand my business,” said Danielle Morrill, the chief executive of Mattermark, a start-up that organizes and sells information about the start-up market. “That’s actually terrifying to me. Silicon Valley’s sudden distaste for the I.P.O. — rooted in part in Wall Street’s skepticism of new tech stocks — may be the single most important psychological shift underlying the current tech boom. Staying private affords start-up executives the luxury of not worrying what outsiders think and helps them avoid the quarterly earnings treadmill. It also means Wall Street is doing what it failed to do in the last tech boom: using traditional metrics like growth and profitability to price companies. Investors have been tough on Twitter, for example, because its user growth has slowed. They have been tough on Box, the cloud-storage company that went public last year, because it remains unprofitable. And the e-commerce company Zulily, which went public last year, was likewise punished when it cut its guidance for future sales. Scott Kupor, the managing partner at the venture capital firm Andreessen Horowitz, and his colleagues said in a recent report that despite all the attention start-ups have received in recent years, tech stocks are not seeing unusually high valuations. In fact, their share of the overall market has remained stable for 14 years, and far off the peak of the late 1990s. That unwillingness to cut much slack to young tech companies limits risk for regular investors. If the bubble pops, the unwashed masses, if that’s what we are, aren’t as likely to get washed out. Private investors, on the other hand, are making big bets on so-called unicorns — the Silicon Valley jargon for start-up companies valued at more than a billion dollars. If many of those unicorns flop, most Americans will escape unharmed, because losses will be confined to venture capitalists and hedge funds that have begun to buy into tech start-ups, as well as tech founders and their employees. The reluctance — and sometimes inability — to go public is spurring the unicorns. By relying on private investors for a longer period of time, start-ups get more runway to figure out sustainable business models. To delay their entrance into the public markets, firms like Airbnb, Dropbox, Palantir, Pinterest, Uber and several other large start-ups are raising hundreds of millions, and in some cases billions, that they would otherwise have gained through an initial public offering. “These companies are going public, just in the private market,” Dan Levitan, the managing partner of the venture capital firm Maveron, told me recently. He means that in many cases, hedge funds and other global investors that would have bought shares in these firms after an I.P.O. are deciding to go into late-stage private rounds. There is even an oxymoronic term for the act of obtaining private money in place of a public offering: It’s called a “private I.P.O.” The delay in I.P.O.s has altered how some venture capital firms do business. Rather than waiting for an initial offering, Maveron, for instance, says it now sells its stake in a start-up to other, larger private investors once it has made about 100 times its initial investment. It is the sort of return that once was only possible after an I.P.O. But there is also a downside to the new aversion to initial offerings. When the unicorns do eventually go public and begin to soar — or whatever it is that fantastical horned beasts tend to do when they’re healthy — the biggest winners will be the private investors that are now bearing most of the risk. It used to be that public investors who got in on the ground floor of an initial offering could earn historic gains. If you invested $1,000 in Amazon at its I.P.O. in 1997, you would now have nearly $250,000. If you had invested $1,000 in Microsoft in 1986, you would have close to half a million. Public investors today are unlikely to get anywhere near such gains from tech I.P.O.s. By the time tech companies come to the market, the biggest gains have already been extracted by private backers. Just 53 technology companies went public in 2014, which is around the median since 1980, but far fewer than during the boom of the late 1990s and 2000, when hundreds of tech companies went public annually, according to statistics maintained by Jay Ritter, a professor of finance at the University of Florida. Today’s companies are also waiting longer. In 2014, the typical tech company hitting the markets was 11 years old, compared with a median age of seven years for tech I.P.O.s since 1980. Over the last few weeks, I’ve asked several founders and investors why they’re waiting; few were willing to speak on the record about their own companies, but their answers all amounted to “What’s the point?” Initial public offerings were also ways to compensate employees and founders who owned lots of stock, but there are now novel mechanisms — such as selling shares on a secondary market — for insiders to cash in on some of their shares in private companies. Still, some observers cautioned that the new trend may be a bad deal for employees who aren’t given much information about the company’s performance. “One thing employees may be confused about is when companies tell them, ‘We’re basically doing a private I.P.O.,’ it might make them feel like there’s less risk than there really is,” said Ms. Morrill of Mattermark. But she said it was hard to persuade people that their paper gains may never materialize. “The Kool-Aid is really strong,” she said. If the delay in I.P.O.s becomes a normal condition for Silicon Valley, some observers say tech companies may need to consider new forms of compensation for workers. “We probably need to fundamentally rethink how do private companies compensate employees, because that’s going to be an issue,” said Mr. Kupor, of Andreessen Horowitz. During a recent presentation for Andreessen Horowitz’s limited partners — the institutions that give money to the venture firm — Marc Andreessen, the firm’s co-founder, told the journalist Dan Primack that he had never seen a sharper divergence in how investors treat public- and private-company chief executives. “They tell the public C.E.O., ‘Give us the money back this quarter,’ and they tell the private C.E.O., ‘No problem, go for 10 years,’ ” Mr. Andreessen said. At some point this tension will be resolved. “Private valuations will not forever be higher than public valuations,” said Mr. Levitan, of Maveron. “So the question is, Will private markets capitulate and go down or will public markets go up?” If the private investors are wrong, employees, founders and a lot of hedge funds could be in for a reckoning. But if they’re right, it will be you and me wearing the frown — the public investors who missed out on the next big thing. Questions 15-18 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 15. How much funds would you gain by now, if you had invested 1000$ in the Amazon in 1997? A $250,000 B close to $500,000 C it is not stated in the text D no funds 16. Nowadays founders talk about going public as a: A necessity B benefit C possibility D profit 17. In which time period was the biggest number of companies going public? A early 1990s B late 1900s and 2000s C 1980s D late 1990s 18. According to the text, which of the following is true? A Private valuations may be forever higher than public ones. B Public valuations eventually will become even less valuable. C The main question is whether the public market increase or the private market decrease. D The pressure might last for a long time. Questions 19-23 Complete the sentences below. Write ONLY ONE WORD from the passage for each answer. 19. Skepticism was always expected by the………………………….of tech industry. 20. The new aversion to initial offerings has its…………………. 21. Selling shares on a secondary market is considered a………………………….mechanism. 22. Workers’ compensation might be an………………………… 23. The public investors who failed to participate in the next big thing might be the ones wearing the……………. Questions 24-27 Do the following statements agree with the information in the IELTS reading text? TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 24. Private investors are bearing most of the risk. 25. Not many investors were willing to speak on the record. 26. The typical tech company hitting the markets in 1990s was 5 years old. 27. Marc Andreessen, the firm’s co-founder, expressed amazement with divergency in how investors treat public. Reading Passage 3 When you think about it, kissing is strange and a bit icky. You share saliva with someone, sometimes for a prolonged period of time. One kiss could pass on 80 million bacteria, not all of them good. Yet everyone surely remembers their first kiss, in all its embarrassing or delightful detail, and kissing continues to play a big role in new romances. At least, it does in some societies. People in western societies may assume that romantic kissing is a universal human behaviour, but a new analysis suggests that less than half of all cultures actually do it. Kissing is also extremely rare in the animal kingdom. So what’s really behind this odd behaviour? If it is useful, why don’t all animals do it – and all humans too? It turns out that the very fact that most animals don’t kiss helps explain why some do. According to a new study of kissing preferences, which looked at 168 cultures from around the world, only 46% of cultures kiss in the romantic sense.  Previous estimates had put the figure at 90%. The new study excluded parents kissing their children, and focused solely on romantic lip-on-lip action between couples. Many hunter-gatherer groups showed no evidence of kissing or desire to do so. Some even considered it revolting. The Mehinaku tribe in Brazil reportedly said it was “gross”. Given that hunter-gatherer groups are the closest modern humans get to living our ancestral lifestyle, our ancestors may not have been kissing either. The study overturns the belief that romantic kissing is a near-universal human behaviour, says lead author William Jankowiak of the University of Nevada in Las Vegas. Instead it seems to be a product of western societies, passed on from one generation to the next, he says. There is some historical evidence to back that up. Kissing as we do it today seems to be a fairly recent invention, says Rafael Wlodarski of the University of Oxford in the UK. He has trawled through records to find evidence of how kissing has changed. The oldest evidence of a kissing-type behaviour comes from Hindu Vedic Sanskrit texts from over 3,500 years ago. Kissing was described as inhaling each other’s soul. In contrast, Egyptian hieroglyphics picture people close to each other rather than pressing their lips together. So what is going on? Is kissing something we do naturally, but that some cultures have suppressed? Or is it something modern humans have invented? We can find some insight by looking at animals. Our closest relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, do kiss. Primatologist Frans de Waal of Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, has seen many instances of chimps kissing and hugging after conflict. For chimpanzees, kissing is a form of reconciliation. It is more common among males than females. In other words, it is not a romantic behaviour. Their cousins the bonobos kiss more often, and they often use tongues while doing so. That’s perhaps not surprising, because bonobos are highly sexual beings. When two humans meet, we might shake hands. Bonobos have sex: the so-called bonobo handshake. They also use sex for many other kinds of bonding. So their kisses are not particularly romantic, either. These two apes are exceptions. As far as we know, other animals do not kiss at all. They may nuzzle or touch their faces together, but even those that have lips don’t share saliva or purse and smack their lips together. They don’t need to. Take wild boars. Males produce a pungent smell that females find extremely attractive. The key chemical is a pheromone called androstenone that triggers the females’ desire to mate. From a female’s point of view this is a good thing, because males with the most androstonene are also the most fertile. Her sense of smell is so acute, she doesn’t need to get close enough to kiss the male. The same is true of many other mammals. For example, female hamsters emit a pheromone that gets males very excited. Mice follow similar chemical traces to help them find partners that are genetically different, minimising the risk of accidental incest. Animals often release these pheromones in their urine. “Their urine is much more pungent,” says Wlodarski. “If there’s urine present in the environment they can assess compatibility through that.” It’s not just mammals that have a great sense of smell. A male black widow spider can smell pheromones produced by a female that tell him if she has recently eaten. To minimise the risk of being eaten, he will only mate with her if she is not hungry. The point is, animals do not need to get close to each other to smell out a good potential mate. On the other hand, humans have an atrocious sense of smell, so we benefit from getting close. Smell isn’t the only cue we use to assess each other’s fitness, but studies have shown that it plays an important role in mate choice. A study published in 1995 showed that women, just like mice, prefer the smell of men who are genetically different from them. This makes sense, as mating with someone with different genes is likely to produce healthy offspring. Kissing is a great way to get close enough to sniff out your partner’s genes. In 2013, Wlodarski examined kissing preferences in detail. He asked several hundred people what was most important when kissing someone. How they smelled featured highly, and the importance of smell increased when women were most fertile. It turns out that men also make a version of the pheromone that female boars find attractive. It is present in male sweat, and when women are exposed to it their arousal levels increase slightly. Pheromones are a big part of how mammals chose a mate, says Wlodarski, and we share some of them. “We’ve inherited all of our biology from mammals, we’ve just added extra things through evolutionary time.” On that view, kissing is just a culturally acceptable way to get close enough to another person to detect their pheromones. In some cultures, this sniffing behaviour turned into physical lip contact. It’s hard to pinpoint when this happened, but both serve the same purpose, says Wlodarski. So if you want to find a perfect match, you could forego kissing and start smelling people instead. You’ll find just as good a partner, and you won’t get half as many germs. Be prepared for some funny looks, though. Questions 28-35 Do the following statements agree with the information in the IELTS reading text? In boxes 28-32 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 28. Both Easter and Wester societies presume that kissing is essential for any part of the world. 29. Our ancestors were not likely to kiss. 30. Chimpanzees and bonbons kiss not for the romance. 31. There are other animal, rather than apes, that kiss. 32. Scent might be important in choosing your partner. 33. Wlodarski surveyed several men to figure out the importance of kissing. 34. Majority of the microorganisms passed by kissing are beneficial for the body. 35. According to a Hindu text, kissing is a means to exchange souls. Questions 36-39 Complete the sentences below. Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. 36. According to the Mehinaku tribe, kissing is………………………. 37. Human tradition is to……………………when they meet. 38. A male black widow will mate with the female if only she is………………………. 39. Humans benefit from getting close due to the fact that we have an………………….of smell. Question 40 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 40. Passage 3 can be described as: A Strictly scientific text B Historical article C Article from a magazine D Dystopian sketch Answers 1. false 2. true 3. not given 4. true 5. true 6. B 7. A 8. B 9. weird 10. vibrant 11. polar-opposite 12. imagery hovering 13. adamant 14. disorder 15. A 16. A 17. B 18. C 19. luminaries 20. downside 21. novel 22. issue 23. frown 24. true 25. true 26. not given 27. false 28. false 29. true 30. true 31. false 32. true 33. not given 34. not given 35. true 36. gross 37. shake hands 38. not hungry 39. atrocious sense 40. C

Reading Passage One A The Lumiere Brothers opened their Cinematographe, at 14 Boulevard des Capucines in Paris, to 100 paying customers over 100 years ago, on December 8, 1 895. Before the eyes of the stunned, thrilled audience, photographs came to life and moved across a flat screen. B So ordinary and routine has this become to us that it takes a determined leap of the imagination to grasp the impact of those first moving images. But it is worth trying, for to understand the initial shock of those images is to understand the extraordinary power and magic of cinema, the unique, hypnotic quality that has made film the most dynamic, effective art form of the 20th century. C One of the Lumiere Brothers’ earliest films was a 30-second piece which showed a section of a railway platform flooded with sunshine. A train appears and heads straight for the camera. And that is all that happens. Yet the Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky, one of the greatest of all film artists, described the film as a ‘work of genius’. ‘As the train approached,’ wrote Tarkovsky, panic started in the theatre: people jumped and ran away. That was the moment when cinema was born. The frightened audience could not accept that they were watching a mere picture. Pictures were still, only reality moved; this must, therefore, be reality. In confusion, they feared that a real train was about to crush them.’ D Early cinema audiences often experienced the same confusion. In time, the idea of film became familiar, the magic was accepted — but it never stopped being magic. Film has never lost its unique power to embrace its audiences and transport them to a different world. For Tarkovsky, the key to that magic was the way in which cinema created a dynamic image of the real flow of events. A still picture could only imply the existence of time, while time in a novel passed at the whim of the reader but in cinema, the real, objective flow of time was captured. E One effect of this realism was to educate the world about itself. For cinema makes the world smaller. Long before people travelled to America or anywhere else, they knew what other places looked like; they knew how other people worked and lived. Overwhelmingly, the lives recorded – at least in film fiction – have been American. From the earliest days of the industry, Hollywood has dominated the world film market. American imagery – the cars, the cities, the cowboys – became the primary imagery of film. Film carried American life and values around the globe. F And, thanks to film, future generations will know the 20th century more intimately than any other period. We can only imagine what life was like in the 14th century or in classical Greece. But the life of the modern world has been recorded on film in massive, encyclopedic detail. We shall be known better than any preceding generations. G The ‘star’ was another natural consequence of cinema. The cinema star was effectively born in 1910. Film personalities have such an immediate presence that, inevitably, they become super-real. Because we watch them so closely and because everybody in the world seems to bow who they are, they appear more real to us than we do ourselves. The star as magnified human self is one of cinema’s most strange and enduring legacies. H Cinema has also given a new lease of life to the idea of the story. When the Lumiere Brothers and other pioneers began showing off this new invention, it was by no means obvious how it would be used. All that mattered at first was the wonder of movement. Indeed, some said that, once this novelty had worn off, cinema would fade away. It was no more than a passing gimmick, a fairground attraction. I Cinema might, for example, have become primarily a documentary form. Or it might have developed like television as a strange noisy transfer of music, information and narrative. But what happened was that it became, overwhelmingly, a medium for telling stories. Originally these were conceived as short stories – early producers doubted the ability of audiences to concentrate for more than the length of a re el. Then, in 1912, an Italian 2-hour film was hugely successful, and Hollywood settled upon the novel-length narrative that remains the dominant cinematic convention of today. J And it has all happened so quickly. Almost unbelievably, it is a mere 100 years since that train arrived and the audience screamed and fled, convinced by the dangerous reality of what they saw, and, perhaps, suddenly aware that the world could never be the same again – that, maybe, it could be better, brighter, more astonishing, more real than reality. Questions 1-5 Reading Passage 1 has ten paragraphs, A-J. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct fetter, A-J. in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet. 1 the location of the first cinema 2 how cinema came to focus on stories 3 the speed with which cinema has changed 4 how cinema teaches us about other cultures 5 the attraction of actors in films Questions 6-9 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 1? In boxes 6-9 on your answer sheet, write: YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 6 It is important to understand how the first audiences reacted to the cinema. 7 The Lumiere Brothers’ film about the train was one of the greatest films ever made. 8 Cinema presents a biased view of other countries. 9 Storylines were important in very early cinema. Questions 10-13 Choose the correct letter. A, B, Cor D. Write the correct letter in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet. 10 The writer refers to the film of the train in order to demonstrate A the simplicity of early films B the impact of early films C how short early films were D how imaginative early films were 11 In Tarkovsky’s opinion, the attraction of the cinema is that it A aims to impress its audience B tells stories better than books C illustrates the passing of time D describes familiar events 12 When cinema first began, people thought that A it would always tell stories B it should be used in fairgrounds C its audiences were unappreciative D its future was uncertain 13 What is the best title for this passage? A The rise of the cinema star B Cinema and novels compared C The domination of Hollywood D The power of the big screen MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES UNDER ADVERSE CONDITIONS THE CHALLENGE It is a great deal easier to motivate employees in a growing organisation than a declining one. When organisations are expanding and adding personnel, promotional opportunities, pay rises, and the excitement of being associated with a dynamic organisation create Slings of optimism. Management is able to use the growth to entice and encourage employees. When an organisation is shrinking, the best and most mobile workers are prone to leave voluntarily. Unfortunately, they are the ones the organisation can least afford to lose- those with the highest skills and experience. The minor employees remain because their job options are limited. Morale also suffers during decline. People fear they may be the next to be made redundant. Productivity often suffers, as employees spend their time sharing rumours and providing one another with moral support rather than focusing on their jobs. For those whose jobs are secure, pay increases are rarely possible. Pay cuts, unheard of during times of growth, may even be imposed. The challenge to management is how to motivate employees under such retrenchment conditions. The ways of meeting this challenge can be broadly divided into six Key Points, which are outlined below. KEY POINT ONE There is an abundance of evidence to support the motivational benefits that result from carefully matching people to jobs. For example, if the job is running a small business or an autonomous unit within a larger business, high achievers should be sought. However, if the job to be filled is a managerial post in a large bureaucratic organisation, a candidate who has a high need for power and a low need for affiliation should be selected. Accordingly, high achievers should not be put into jobs that are inconsistent with their needs. High achievers will do best when the job provides moderately challenging goals and where there is independence and feedback. However, it should be remembered that not everybody is motivated by jobs that are high in independence, variety and responsibility. KEY POINT TWO The literature on goal-setting theory suggests that managers should ensure that all employees have specific goals and receive comments on how well they are doing in those goals. For those with high achievement needs, typically a minority in any organisation, the existence of external goals is less important because high achievers are already internally motivated. The next factor to be determined is whether the goals should be assigned by a manager or collectively set in conjunction with the employees. The answer to that depends on perceptions the culture, however, goals should be assigned. If participation and the culture are incongruous, employees are likely to perceive the participation process as manipulative and be negatively affected by it. KEY POINT THREE Regardless of whether goals are achievable or well within management’s perceptions of the employee’s ability, if employees see them as unachievable they will reduce their effort. Managers must be sure, therefore, that employees feel confident that their efforts can lead to performance goals. For managers, this means that employees must have the capability of doing the job and must regard the appraisal process as valid. KEY POINT FOUR Since employees have different needs, what acts as a reinforcement for one may not for another. Managers could use their knowledge of each employee to personalise the rewards over which they have control. Some of the more obvious rewards that managers allocate include pay, promotions, autonomy, job scope and depth, and the opportunity to participate in goal-setting and decision-making. KEY POINT FIVE Managers need to make rewards contingent on performance. To reward factors other than performance will only reinforce those other factors. Key rewards such as pay increases and promotions or advancements should be allocated for the attainment of the employee’s specific goals. Consistent with maximising the impact of rewards, managers should look for ways to increase their visibility. Eliminating the secrecy surrounding pay by openly communicating everyone’s remuneration, publicising performance bonuses and allocating annual salary increases in a lump sum rather than spreading them out over an entire year are examples of actions that will make rewards more visible and potentially more motivating. KEY POINT SIX The way rewards are distributed should be transparent so that employees perceive that rewards or outcomes are equitable and equal to the inputs given. On a simplistic level, experience, abilities, effort and other obvious inputs should explain differences in pay, responsibility and other obvious outcomes. The problem, however, is complicated by the existence of dozens of inputs and outcomes and by the fact that employee groups place different degrees of importance on them. For instance, a study comparing clerical and production workers identified nearly twenty inputs and outcomes. The clerical workers considered factors such as quality of work performed and job knowledge near the top of their list, but these were at the bottom of the production workers’ list. Similarly, production workers thought that the most important inputs were intelligence and personal involvement with task accomplishment, two factors that were quite low in the importance ratings of the clerks. There were also important, though less dramatic, differences on the outcome side. For example, production workers rated advancement very highly, whereas clerical workers rated advancement in the lower third of their list. Such findings suggest that one person’s equity is another’s inequity, so an ideal should probably weigh different inputs and outcomes according to employee group. Questions 14-18 Reading Passage 2 contains six Key Points. Choose the correct heading for Key Points TWO to SIX .from the list of headings below. Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet. List of Headings i Ensure the reward system is fair ii Match rewards lo individuals iii Ensure targets are realistic iv Link rewards to achievement v Encourage managers to take more responsibility vi Recognise changes in employees’ performance over time vii Establish targets and give feedback viii Ensure employees are suited to their jobs 14 Key Point Two 15 Key Point Three 16 Key Point Four 17 Key Point Five 18 Key Point Six Questions 19-24 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 2? In boxes 19-24 on your answer sheet, write: YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 19 A shrinking organisation lends to lose its less skilled employees rather than its more skilled employees. 20 It is easier to manage a small business than a large business. 21 High achievers are well suited to team work. 22 Some employees can feel manipulated when asked to participate in goal-setting. 23 The staff appraisal process should be designed by employees. 24 Employees’ earnings should be disclosed to everyone within the organisation. Questions 25-27 Look at the follow groups of worker (Question25-27) and the list of descriptions below. Match each group with the correct description, A -E. Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 25-27 on your answer sheet. 25 high achievers 26 clerical workers 27 production workers List of Descriptions A They judge promotion to be important B They have less need of external goats C They think that the quality of their work is important D They resist goals which are imposed E They have limited job options The Search for the Anti-aging Pill As researchers on aging noted recently, no treatment on the market today has been proved to slow human aging- the build-up of molecular and cellular damage that increases vulnerability to infirmity as we grow older. But one intervention, consumption of a low-calorie yet nutritionally balanced diet, works incredibly well in a broad range of animals, increasing longevity and prolonging good health. Those findings suggest that caloric restriction could delay aging and increase longevity in humans, too. Unfortunately, for maximum benefit, people would probably have to reduce their caloric intake by roughly thirty per cent, equivalent to dropping from 2,500 calories a day to 1,750. Few mortals could stick to that harsh a regimen, especially for years on end. But what if someone could create a pill that mimicked the physiological effects of eating less without actually forcing people to eat less? Could such a ‘caloric-restriction mimetic’, as we call it, enable people to stay healthy longer, postponing age-related disorders (such as diabetes, arteriosclerosis, heart disease and cancer) until very late in life? Scientists first posed this question in the mid-1990s, after researchers came upon a chemical agent that in rodents seemed to reproduce many of caloric restriction’s benefits. No compound that would safely achieve the same feat in people has been found yet, but the search has been informative and has fanned hope that caloric-restriction (CR) mimetics can indeed be developed eventually. The benefits of caloric restriction The hunt for CR mimetics grew out of a desire to better understand caloric restriction’s many effects on the body. Scientists first recognized the value of the practice more than 60 years ago, when they found that rats fed a low-calorie diet lived longer on average than free-feeding rats and also had a reduced incidence of conditions that become increasingly common in old age. What is more, some of the treated animals survived longer than the oldest-living animals in the control group, which means that the maximum lifespan (the oldest attainable age), not merely the normal lifespan, increased. Various interventions, such as infection-fighting drugs, can increase a population’s average survival time, but only approaches that slow the body’s rate of aging will increase the maximum lifespan. The rat findings have been replicated many times and extended to creatures ranging from yeast to fruit flies, worms, fish, spiders, mice and hamsters. Until fairly recently, the studies were limited to short-lived creatures genetically distant from humans. But caloric-restriction projects underway in two species more closely related to humans- rhesus and squirrel monkeys- have scientists optimistic that CR mimetics could help people. The monkey projects demonstrate that, compared with control animals that eat normally, caloric-restricted monkeys have lower body temperatures and levels of the pancreatic hormone insulin, and they retain more youthful levels of certain hormones that tend to fall with age. The caloric-restricted animals also look better on indicators of risk for age-related diseases. For example, they have lower blood pressure and triglyceride levels (signifying a decreased likelihood of heart disease), and they have more normal blood glucose levels (pointing to a reduced risk for diabetes, which is marked by unusually high blood glucose levels). Further, it has recently been shown that rhesus monkeys kept on caloric-restricted diets for an extended time (nearly 15 years) have less chronic disease. They and the other monkeys must be followed still longer, however, to know whether low-calorie intake can increase both average and maximum lifespans in monkeys. Unlike the multitude of elixirs being touted as the latest anti-aging cure, CR mimetics would alter fundamental processes that underlie aging. We aim to develop compounds that fool cells into activating maintenance and repair. How a prototype caloric-restriction mimetic works The best-studied candidate for a caloric-restriction mimetic, 2DG (2-deoxy-D-glucose), works by interfering with the way cells process glucose, it has proved toxic at some doses in animals and so cannot be used in humans. But it has demonstrated that chemicals can replicate the effects of caloric restriction; the trick is finding the right one. Cells use the glucose from food to generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the molecule that powers many activities in the body. By limiting food intake, caloric restriction minimizes the amount of glucose entering cells and decreases ATP generation. When 2DG is administered to animals that eat normally, glucose reaches cells in abundance but the drug prevents most of it from being processed and thus reduces ATP synthesis. Researchers have proposed several explanations for why interruption of glucose processing and ATP production might retard aging. One possibility relates to the ATP-making machinery’s emission of free radicals, which are thought to contribute to aging and to such age-related diseases as cancer by damaging cells. Reduced operation of the machinery should limit their production and thereby constrain the damage. Another hypothesis suggests that decreased processing of glucose could indicate to cells that food is scarce (even if it isn’t) and induce them to shift into an anti-aging mode that emphasizes preservation of the organism over such ‘luxuries’ as growth and reproduction. Questions 28-32 Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3? In boxes 28-32 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 28 Studies show drugs available today can delay the process of growing old. 29 There is scientific evidence that eating fewer calories may extend human life. 30 Not many people are likely to find a caloric-restricted diet attractive. 31 Diet-related diseases are common in older people. 32 In experiments, rats who ate what they wanted led shorter lives than rats on a low-calorie diet. Questions 33-37 Classify the following descriptions as relating to A caloric-restricted monkeys B control monkeys C neither caloric-restricted monkeys nor control monkeys 33 Monkeys were less likely to become diabetic. 34 Monkeys experienced more chronic disease. 35 Monkeys have been shown to experience a longer than average life span. 36 Monkeys enjoyed a reduced chance of heart disease. 37 Monkeys produced greater quantities of insulin. Questions 38-40 Complete the flowchart below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Answers 1. A 2. I 3. J 4. E 5. G 6. yes 7. not given 8. not given 9. no 10. B 11. C 12. D 13. D 14. 7 15. 3 16. 2 17. 4 18. 1 19. no 20. not given 21. no 22. yes 23. not given 24. yes 25. B 26. C 27. A 28. no 29. yes 30. yes 31. not given 32. yes 33. A 34. B 35. C 36. A 37. B 38. glucose 39. free radicals 40. preservation

GLASS – Capturing The Dance of Light A Glass, in one form or another, has long been in noble service to humans. As one of the most widely used of manufactured materials, and certainly the most versatile, it can be as imposing as a telescope mirror the width of a tennis court or as small and simple as a marble rolling across dirt. The uses of this adaptable material have been broadened dramatically by new technologies glass fibre optics — more than eight million miles — carrying telephone and television signals across nations, glass ceramics serving as the nose cones of missiles and as crowns for teeth; tiny glass beads taking radiation doses inside the body to specific organs, even a new type of glass fashioned of nuclear waste in order to dispose of that unwanted material. B On the horizon are optical computers. These could store programs and process information by means of light – pulses from tiny lasers – rather than electrons and the pulses would travel over glass fibres, not copper wire. These machines could function hundreds of times faster than today’s electronic computers and hold vastly more information. Today fibre optics viruses. A new generation of optical instruments is emerging that can provide detailed imaging of the inner workings of cells. It is the surge in fibre optic use and in liquid crystal displays that has set the U.S. glass industry (a 16 billion dollar business employing some 150,000 workers) to building new plants to meet demand. C But it is not only in technology and commerce that glass has widened its horizons. The use of glass as art, a tradition spins back at least to Roman times, is also booming. Nearly everywhere, it seems, men and women are blowing glass and creating works of art. “I didn’t sell a piece of glass until 1975”, Dale Chihuly said, smiling, for in the 18 years since the end of the dry spell, he has become one of the most financially successful artists of the 20th century. He now has a new commission – a glass sculpture for the headquarters building of a pizza company – for which his fee is half a million dollars. D But not all the glass technology that touches our lives is ultra-modern. Consider the simple light bulb; at the turn of the century most light bulbs were hand blown, and the cost of one was equivalent to half a day’s pay for the average worker. In effect, the invention of the ribbon machine by Corning in the 1920s lighted a nation. The price of a bulb plunged. Small wonder that the machine has been called one of the great mechanical achievements of all time. Yet it is very simple: a narrow ribbon of molten glass travels over a moving belt of steel in which there are holes. The glass sags through the holes and into waiting moulds. Puffs of compressed air then shape the glass. In this way, the envelope of a light bulb is made by a single machine at the rate of 66,000 an hour, as compared with 1,200 a day produced by a team of four glassblowers. E The secret of the versatility of glass lies in its interior structure. Although it is rigid, and thus like a solid, the atoms are arranged in a random disordered fashion, characteristic of a liquid. In the melting process, the atoms in the raw materials are disturbed from their normal position in the molecular structure; before they can find their way back to crystalline arrangements the glass cools. This looseness in molecular structure gives the material what engineers call tremendous “formability” which allows technicians to tailor glass to whatever they need. F Today, scientists continue to experiment with new glass mixtures and building designers test their imaginations with applications of special types of glass. A London architect, Mike Davies, sees even more dramatic buildings using molecular chemistry. “Glass is the great building material of the future, the dynamic skin,’ he said. “Think of glass that has been treated to react to electric currents going through it, glass that will change from clear to opaque at the push of a button, that gives you instant curtains. Think of how the tall buildings in New York could perform a symphony of colours as the glass in them is made to change colours instantly.” Glass as instant curtains is available now, but the cost is exorbitant. As for the glass changing colours instantly, that may come true. Mike Davies’s vision may indeed be on the way to fulfilment. Questions 1-5 Reading Passage 1 has six paragraphs (A-F). Choose the most suitable heading/or each paragraph from the list of headings below. Write the appropriate numbers (i-x) in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet. Paragraph A has been done for you as an example. NB There are more headings than paragraphs so you will not use all of them. You may use any heading more at once. List of Headings i. Growth in the market for glass crafts ii. Computers and their dependence on glass iii. What makes glass so adaptable iv. Historical development of glass v. Scientists’ dreams cost millions vi. Architectural experiments with glass vii. Glass art galleries flourish viii. Exciting innovations in fibre optics ix. A former glass technology x. Everyday uses of glass 1 Paragraph B 2 Paragraph C 3 Paragraph D 4 Paragraph E 5 Paragraph F Questions 6-8 The diagram below shows the principle of Corning’s ribbon machine. Label the diagram by selecting NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the Reading Passage to fill each numbered space. Write your answers in boxes 6-8 on your answer sheet. Questions 9-13 Look at the list below of the uses of glass. According to the passage, state whether these uses exist today, will exist in the future or are not mentioned by the writer. In boxes 9-13 write A if the uses exist today B if the uses will exist in the future C if the uses are not mentioned by the writer 9 dental fittings 10 optical computers 11 sculptures 12 fashions 13 curtains Why some women cross the finish line ahead of men A Women who apply for jobs in middle or senior management have a higher success rate than men, according to an employment survey. But of course far fewer of them apply for these positions. The study, by recruitment consultants NB Selection, shows that while one in six men who appear on interview shortlists get jobs, the figure rises to one in four for women. B The study concentrated on applications for management positions in the $45,000 to $110,000 salary range and found that women are more successful than men in both the private and public sectors Dr Elisabeth Marx from London-based NB Selection described the findings as encouraging for women, in that they send a positive message to them to apply for interesting management positions. But she added, “We should not lose sight of the fact that significantly fewer women apply for senior positions in comparison with men.” C Reasons for higher success rates among women are difficult to isolate. One explanation suggested is that if a woman candidate manages to get on a shortlist, then she has probably already proved herself to be an exceptional candidate. Dr Marx said that when women apply for positions they tend to be better qualified than their male counterparts but are more selective and conservative in their job search. Women tend to research thoroughly before applying for positions or attending interviews. Men, on the other hand, seem to rely on their ability to sell themselves and to convince employers that any shortcomings they have will not prevent them from doing a good job. D Managerial and executive progress made by women is confirmed by the annual survey of boards of directors carried out by Korn/ Ferry/ Carre/ Orban International. This year the survey shows a doubling of the number of women serving as non-executive directors compared with the previous year. However, progress remains painfully slow and there were still only 18 posts filled by women out of a total of 354 nonexecutive positions surveyed. Hilary Sears, a partner with Korn/ Ferry, said, “Women have raised the level of grades we are employed in but we have still not broken through barriers to the top.” E In Europe a recent feature of corporate life in the recession has been the delayering of management structures. Sears said that this has halted progress for women in as much as de-layering has taken place either where women are working or in layers they aspire to. Sears also noted a positive trend from the recession, which has been the growing number of women who have started up on their own. F In business as a whole, there are a number of factors encouraging the prospect of greater equality in the workforce. Demographic trends suggest that the number of women going into employment is steadily increasing. In addition a far greater number of women are now passing through higher education, making them better qualified to move into management positions. G Organisations such as the European Women’s Management Development Network provide a range of opportunities for women to enhance their skills and contacts. Through a series of both pan-European and national workshops and conferences the barriers to women in employment are being broken down. However, Ariane Berthoin Antal, director of the International Institute for Organisational Change of Archamps in France, said that there is only anecdotal evidence of changes in recruitment patterns. And she said, “It’s still so hard for women to even get on to shortlists -there are so many hurdles and barriers.” Antal agreed that there have been some positive signs but said “Until there is a belief among employers, until they value the difference, nothing will change.” Questions 14-19 Reading Passage 2 has 7 paragraphs (A-G). State which paragraph discusses each of the points below. Write the appropriate letter (A-G) in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet. Example: The salary range studied in the NB Selection survey. Answer B 14 The drawbacks of current company restructuring patterns. 15 Associations that provide support for professional women. 16 The success rate of female job applicants for management positions. 17 Male and female approaches to job applications. 18 Reasons why more women are being employed in the business sector. 19 The improvement in female numbers on company management structures. Questions 20-23 The author makes reference to three consultants in the Reading Passage. Which of the list of points below do these consultants make? In boxes 20-23 write M if the point is made by Dr Marx S if the point is made by Hilary Sears A if the point is made by Ariane Berthoin Antal 20 Selection procedures do not favour women. 21 The number of female-run businesses is increasing. 22 Male applicants exceed female applicants for top posts. 23 Women hold higher positions now than they used to. Questions 24-27 Using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS answer the following questions. Write your answers in boxes 24-27 on your answer sheet. 24 What change has there been in the number of women in top management positions detailed in the annual survey? 25 What aspect of company structuring has disadvantaged women? 26 What information tells us that more women are working nowadays? 27 Which group of people should change their attitude to recruitment? Population viability analysis Part A To make political decisions about the extent and type of forestry in a region it is important to understand the consequences of those decisions. One tool for assessing the impact of forestry on the ecosystem is population viability analysis (PVA). This is a tool for predicting the probability that a species will become extinct in a particular region over a specific period. It has been successfully used in the United States to provide input into resource exploitation decisions and assist wildlife managers and there is now enormous potential for using population viability to assist wildlife management in Australia’s forests. A species becomes extinct when the last individual dies. This observation is a useful starting point for any discussion of extinction as it highlights the role of luck and chance in the extinction process. To make a prediction about extinction we need to understand the processes that can contribute to it and these fall into four broad categories which are discussed below. Part B A Early attempts to predict population viability were based on demographic uncertainty Whether an individual survives from one year to the next will largely be a matter of chance. Some pairs may produce several young in a single year while others may produce none in that same year. Small populations will fluctuate enormously because of the random nature of birth and death and these chance fluctuations can cause species extinctions even if, on average, the population size should increase. Taking only this uncertainty of ability to reproduce into account, extinction is unlikely if the number of individuals in a population is above about 50 and the population is growing. B Small populations cannot avoid a certain amount of inbreeding. This is particularly true if there is a very small number of one sex. For example, if there are only 20 individuals of a species and only one is a male, all future individuals in the species must be descended from that one male. For most animal species such individuals are less likely to survive and reproduce. Inbreeding increases the chance of extinction. C Variation within a species is the raw material upon which natural selection acts. Without genetic variability a species lacks the capacity to evolve and cannot adapt to changes in its environment or to new predators and new diseases. The loss of genetic diversity associated with reductions in population size will contribute to the likelihood of extinction. D Recent research has shown that other factors need to be considered. Australia’s environment fluctuates enormously from year to year. These fluctuations add yet another degree of uncertainty to the survival of many species. Catastrophes such as fire, flood, drought or epidemic may reduce population sizes to a small fraction of their average level. When allowance is made for these two additional elements of uncertainty the population size necessary to be confident of persistence for a few hundred years may increase to several thousand. Part C Beside these processes we need to bear in mind the distribution of a population. A species that occurs in five isolated places each containing 20 individuals will not have the same probability of extinction as a species with a single population of 100 individuals in a single locality. Where logging occurs (that is, the cutting down of forests for timber) forest dependent creatures in that area will be forced to leave. Ground-dwelling herbivores may return within a decade. However, arboreal marsupials (that is animals which live in trees) may not recover to pre-logging densities for over a century. As more forests are logged, animal population sizes will be reduced further. Regardless of the theory or model that we choose, a reduction in population size decreases the genetic diversity of a population and increases the probability of extinction because of any or all of the processes listed above. It is therefore a scientific fact that increasing the area that is loaded in any region will increase the probability that forest-dependent animals will become extinct. Questions 28-31 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Part A of Reading Passage 3? In boxes 28-31 on your answer sheet write YES if the statement agrees with the writer NO if the statement contradicts the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 28 Scientists are interested in the effect of forestry on native animals. 29 PVA has been used in Australia for many years. 30 A species is said to be extinct when only one individual exists. 31 Extinction is a naturally occurring phenomenon. Questions 32-35 These questions are based on Part B of Reading Passage 3. In paragraphs A to D the author describes four processes which may contribute to the extinction of a species. Match the list of processes (i-vi) to the paragraphs. Write the appropriate number (i-vi) in boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet. NB There are more processes than paragraphs so you will not use all of them. 32 Paragraph A 33 Paragraph B 34 Paragraph C 35 Paragraph D Processes i. Loss of ability to adapt ii. Natural disasters iii. An imbalance of the sexes iv. Human disasters v. Evolution vi. The haphazard nature of reproduction Questions 36-39 Based on your reading of Part C, complete the sentences below with words taken from the passage. Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 36-38 on your answer sheet. While the population of a species may be on the increase, there is always a chance that small isolated groups (36)………………………. Survival of a species depends on a balance between the size of a population and its (37)……………………. The likelihood that animals which live in forests will become extinct is increased when (38)…………………… After logging herbivores that reside on ground find it easier to return as compared to (39)……………… Question 40 Choose the appropriate letter A-D and write it in box 39 on your answer sheet. 40 An alternative heading for the passage could be: A The protection of native flora and fauna B Influential factors in assessing survival probability C An economic rationale for the logging of forests D Preventive measures for the extinction of a species Answers 1. viii 2. i 3. ix 4. iii 5. vi 6. molten glass 7. steel belt 8. (lightbulb) moulds 9. A 10. B 11. A 12. C 13. A 14. E 15. G 16. A 17. C 18. F 19. D 20. A 21. S 22. M 23. S 24. double 25. de-layering 26. demographic trends 27. employers 28. not given 29. no 30. no 31. not given 32. vi 33. iii 34. i 35. ii 36. may not survive 37. locality/ distribution 38. logging occurs 39. arboreal marsupials 40. B

Glaciers A Besides the earth’s oceans, glacier ice is the largest source of water on earth. A glacier is a massive stream or sheet of ice that moves underneath itself under the influence of gravity. Some glaciers travel down mountains or valleys, while others spread across a large expanse of land. Heavily glaciated regions such as Greenland and Antarctica are called continental glaciers. These two ice sheets encompass more than 95 percent of the earth’s glacial ice. The Greenland ice sheet is almost 10,000 feet thick in some areas, and the weight of this glacier is so heavy that much of the region has been depressed below sea level. Smaller glaciers that occur at higher elevations are called alpine or valley glaciers. Another way of classifying glaciers is in terms of their internal temperature. In temperate glaciers, the ice within the glacier is near its melting point. Polar glaciers, in contrast, always maintain temperatures far below melting. B The majority of the earth’s glaciers are located near the poles, though glaciers exist on all continents, including Africa and Oceania. The reason glaciers are generally formed in high alpine regions is that they require cold temperatures throughout the year. In these areas where there is little opportunity for summer ablation (loss of mass), snow changes to compacted fin and then crystallized ice. During periods in which melting and evaporation exceed the amount of snowfall, glaciers will retreat rather than progress. While glaciers rely heavily on snowfall, other climactic conditions including freezing rain, avalanches, and wind, contribute to their growth. One year of below average precipitation can stunt the growth of a glacier tremendously. With the rare exception of surging glaciers, a common glacier flows about 10 inches per day in the summer and 5 inches per day in the winter. The fastest glacial surge on record occurred in 1953, when the Kutiah Glacier in Pakistan grew more than 12 kilometers in three months. C The weight and pressure of ice accumulation causes glacier movement. Glaciers move out from under themselves, via plastic deformation and basal slippage. First, the internal flow of ice crystals begins to spread outward and downward from the thickened snow pack also known as the zone of accumulation. Next, the ice along the ground surface begins to slip in the same direction. Seasonal thawing at the base of the glacier helps to facilitate this slippage. The middle of a glacier moves faster than the sides and bottom because there is no rock to cause friction. The upper part of a glacier rides on the ice below. As a glacier moves it carves out a U-shaped valley similar to a riverbed, but with much steeper walls and a flatter bottom. D Besides the extraordinary rivers of ice, glacial erosion creates other unique physical features in the landscape such as horns, fjords, hanging valleys, and cirques. Most of these landforms do not become visible until after a glacier has receded. Many are created by moraines, which occur at the sides and front of a glacier. Moraines are formed when material is picked up along the way and deposited in a new location. When many alpine glaciers occur on the same mountain, these moraines can create a horn. The Matterhorn, in the Swiss Alps, is one of the most famous horns. Fjords, which are very common in Norway, are coastal valleys that fill with ocean water during a glacial retreat. Hanging valleys occur when two or more glacial valleys intersect at varying elevations. It is common for waterfalls to connect the higher and lower hanging valleys, such as in Yosemite National Park. A cirque is a large bowl-shaped valley that forms at the front of a glacier. Cirques often have a lip on their down slope that is deep enough to hold small lakes when the ice melts away. E Glacier movement and shape shifting typically occur over hundreds of years. While presently about 10 percent of the earth’s land is covered with glaciers, it is believed that during the last Ice Age glaciers covered approximately 32 percent of the earth’s surface. In the past century, most glaciers have been retreating rather than flowing forward. It is unknown whether this glacial activity is due to human impact or natural causes, but by studying glacier movement, and comparing climate and agricultural profiles over hundreds of years, glaciologists can begin to understand environmental issues such as global warming. Questions 1-5 Reading Passage 1 has five paragraphs, A-E. Choose the most suitable heading for each para-graph from the list of headings below. Write the appropriate numbers (i-viii) on your Answer Sheet. There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all. List of Headings i Glacial Continents ii Formation and Growth of Glaciers iii Glacial Movement iv Glaciers in the Last Ice Age v Glaciers Through the Years vi Types of Glaciers vii Glacial Effects on Landscape viii Glaciers in National Parks 1 Paragraph A 2 Paragraph B 3 Paragraph C 4 Paragraph D 5 Paragraph E Questions 6-10 Do the following statements agree with the information in the passage? In boxes 6-10 on your Answer Sheet, write TRUE if the statement is true according to the passage. FALSE if the statement contradicts the passage. NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the passage. 6 Glaciers exist only near the north and south poles. 7 Glaciers are formed by a combination of snow and other weather conditions. 8 Glaciers normally move at a rate of about 5 to 10 inches a day. 9 All parts of the glacier move at the same speed. 10 During the last Ice Age, average temperatures were much lower than they were during previous Ice Ages. Questions 11-15 Match each definition below with the term it defines. Write the letter of the term, A-H, on your Answer Sheet. There are more terms than definitions, so you will not use them all. 11 a glacier formed on a mountain 12 a glacier with temperatures well below freezing 13 a glacier that moves very quickly 14 a glacial valley formed near the ocean 15 a glacial valley that looks like a bowl Terms A fjord B alpine glacier C horn D polar glacier E temperate glacier F hanging valley G cirque H surging glacier Irish Potato Famine A In the ten years following the Irish potato famine of 1845, over 750,000 Irish people died, including many of those who attempted to immigrate to countries such as the United States and Canada. Prior to the potato blight, one of the main concerns in Ireland was overpopulation. In the early 1500s, the country’s population was estimated at less than three million, but by 1840 this number had nearly tripled. The bountiful potato crop, which contains almost all of the nutrients that a person needs for survival, was largely to blame for the population growth. However, within five years of the failed crop of 1845, the population of Ireland was reduced by a quarter. A number of factors contributed to the plummet of the Irish population, namely the Irish dependency on the potato crop, the British tenure system, and the inadequate relief efforts of the English. B It is not known exactly how or when the potato was first introduced to Europe; however, the general assumption is that it arrived on a Spanish ship sometime in the 1600s. For more than one hundred years, Europeans believed that potatoes belonged to a botanical family of a poisonous breed. It was not until Marie Antoinette wore potato blossoms in her hair in the mid-eighteenth century that potatoes became a novelty. By the late 1700s, the dietary value of the potato had been discovered, and the monarchs of Europe ordered the vegetable to be widely planted. C By 1800, the vast majority of the Irish population had become dependent on the potato as its primary staple. It wasn’t uncommon for an Irish potato farmer to consume more than six pounds of potatoes a day. Families stored potatoes for the winter and even fed potatoes to their livestock. Because of this dependency, the unexpected potato blight of 1845 devastated the Irish. Investigators at first suggested that the blight was caused by static energy, smoke from railroad trains, or vapors from underground volcanoes; however, the root cause was later discovered as an airborne fungus that traveled from Mexico. Not only did the disease destroy the potato crops, it also infected all of the potatoes in storage at the time. Their families were dying from famine, but weakened farmers had retained little of their agricultural skills to harvest other crops. Those who did manage to grow things such as oats, wheat, and barley relied on earnings from these exported crops to keep their rented homes. D While the potato blight generated mass starvation among the Irish, the people were held captive to their poverty by the British tenure system. Following the Napoleonic Wars of 1815, the English had turned their focus to their colonial land holdings. British landowners realized that the best way to profit from these holdings was to extract the resources and exports and charge expensive rents and taxes for people to live on the land. Under the tenure system, Protestant landlords owned 95 percent of the Irish land, which was divided up into five-acre plots for the people to live and farm on. As the population of Ireland grew, however, the plots were continuously subdivided into smaller parcels. Living conditions declined dramatically, and families were forced to move to less fertile land where almost nothing but the potato would grow. E During this same period of colonization, the Penal Laws were also instituted as a means of weakening the Irish spirit. Under the Penal Laws, Irish peasants were denied basic human rights, such as the right to speak their own native language, seek certain kinds of employment, practice their faith, receive education, and own land. Despite the famine that was devastating Ireland, the landlords had little compassion or sympathy for tenants unable to pay their rent. Approximately 500,000 Irish tenants were evicted by their landlords between 1845 and 1847. Many of these people also had their homes burned down and were put in jail for overdue rent. F The majority of the British officials in the 1840s adopted the laissez-faire philosophy, which supported a policy of nonintervention in the Irish plight. Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel was an exception. He showed compassion toward the Irish by making a move to repeal the Corn Laws, which had been put in place to protect British grain producers from the competition of foreign markets. For this hasty decision, Peel quickly lost the support of the British people and was forced to resign. The new Prime Minister, Lord John Russell, allowed assistant Charles Trevelyan to take complete control over all of the relief efforts in Ireland. Trevelyan believed that the Irish situation should be left to Providence. Claiming that it would be dangerous to let the Irish become dependent on other countries, he even took steps to close food depots that were selling corn and to redirect shipments of com that were already on their way to Ireland. A few relief programs were eventually implemented, such as soup kitchens and workhouses; however, these were poorly run institutions that facilitated the spread of disease, tore apart families, and offered inadequate food supplies considering the extent of Ireland’s shortages. G Many of the effects of the Irish potato famine are still evident today. Descendants of those who fled Ireland during the 1840s are dispersed all over the world. Some of the homes that were evacuated by absentee land-lords still sit abandoned in the Irish hills. A number of Irish descendants still carry animosity toward the British for not putting people before politics. The potato blight itself still plagues the Irish people during certain growing seasons when weather conditions are favorable for the fungus to thrive. Questions 16-20 The passage has seven paragraphs, A-G. Which paragraphs contain the following information? 16 the position of the British government toward the potato famine 17 a description of the system of land ownership in Ireland 18 early European attitudes toward the potato 19 explanation of the lack of legal protection for Irish peasants 20 the importance of the potato in Irish society Questions 21-28 Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-L, from the box below. Write the correct letter in boxes 21-28 on your Answer Sheet. There are more endings than sentences, so you won’t use them all. Sentence Endings A because they couldn’t pay the rent on their farms. B because railroad trains caused air pollution. C because potatoes were their main source of food. D because Charles Trevelyan took over relief efforts. E because they needed the profits to pay the rent. F because they weren’t well-managed. G because there wasn’t enough land for the increasing population. H because his efforts to help the Irish were unpopular among the British. I because they believed that potatoes were poisonous. J because the British instituted penal laws. K because it was discovered that potatoes are full of nutrients. L because Marie Antoinette used potato blossoms as decoration. 21 At first Europeans didn’t eat potatoes 22 European monarchs encouraged potato growing 23 The potato blight was devastating to the Irish 24 Farmers who grew oats, wheat, and barley didn’t eat these crops 25 Many Irish farmers lived on infertile plots 26 Many Irish farmers were arrested 27 Sir Robert Peel lost his position as prime minister 28 Soup kitchens and workhouses didn’t relieve the suffering Anesthesiology Since the beginning of time, man has sought natural remedies for pain. Between 40 and 60 A.D., Greek physician, Dioscorides traveled with the Roman armies, studying the medicinal properties of plants and minerals. His book, De materia medico, written in five volumes and translated into at least seven languages, was the primary reference source for physicians for over sixteen centuries. The field of anesthesiology which was once nothing more than a list of medicinal plants and makeshift remedies, has grown into one of the most important fields in medicine. Many of the early pain relievers were based on myth and did little to relieve the suffering of an ill or injured person. The mandragora (now known as the mandrake plant) was one of the first plants to be used as an anesthetic. Due to the apparent screaming that the plant made as it was pulled from the ground, people in the Middle Ages believed that the person who removed the mandrake from the earth would either die or go insane. This superstition may have resulted because the split root of the mandrake resembled the human form. In order to pull the root from the ground, the plant collector would loosen it and tie the stem to an animal. It was believed that the safest time to uproot a mandrake was in the moonlight, and the best animal to use was a black dog. In his manual, Dioscorides suggested boiling the root with wine and having a man drink the potion to remove sensation before cutting his flesh or burning his skin. Opium and Indian hemp were later used to induce sleep before a painful procedure or to relieve the pain of an illness. Other remedies such as cocaine did more harm to the patient than good as people died from their addictions. President Ulysses S. Grant became addicted to cocaine before he died of throat cancer in 1885. The modern field of anesthetics dates to the incident when nitrous oxide (more commonly known as laughing gas) was accidentally discovered. Humphrey Davy, the inventor of the miner’s lamp, discovered that inhaling the toxic compound caused a strange euphoria, followed by fits of laughter, tears, and sometimes unconsciousness. U.S. dentist, Horace Wells, was the first on record to experiment with laughing gas, which he used in 1844 to relieve pain during a tooth extraction. Two years later, Dr. William Morton created the first anesthetic machine. This apparatus was a simple glass globe containing an ether-soaked sponge. Morton considered ether a good alternative to nitrous oxide because the numbing effect lasted considerably longer. His apparatus allowed the patient to inhale vapors whenever the pain became unbearable. In 1846, during a trial experiment in Boston, a tumor was successfully removed from a man’s jaw area while he was anesthetized with Morton’s machine. The first use of anesthesia in the obstetric field occurred in Scotland by Dr. James Simpson. Instead of ether, which he considered irritating to the eyes, Simpson administered chloroform to reduce the pain of childbirth. Simpson sprinkled chloroform on a handkerchief and allowed laboring women to inhale the fumes at their own discretion. In 1853, Queen Victoria agreed to use chloroform during the birth of her eighth child. Soon the use of chloroform during childbirth was both acceptable and fashionable. However, as chloroform became a more popular anesthetic, knowledge of its toxicity surfaced, and it was soon obsolete. After World War II, numerous developments were made in the field of anesthetics. Surgical procedures that had been unthinkable were being per-formed with little or no pain felt by the patient. Rather than physicians or nurses who administered pain relief as part of their profession, anesthesiologists became specialists in suppressing consciousness and alleviating pain. Anesthesiologists today are classified as perioperative physicians, meaning they take care of a patient before, during, and after surgical procedures. It takes over eight years of schooling and four years of residency until an anesthesiologist is prepared to practice in the United States. These experts are trained to administer three different types of anesthetics: general, local, and regional. General anesthetic is used to put a patient into a temporary state of unconsciousness. Local anesthetic is used only at the affected site and causes a loss of sensation. Regional anesthetic is used to block the sensation and possibly the movement of a larger portion of the body. As well as controlling the levels of pain for the patient before and throughout an operation, anesthesiologists are responsible for monitoring and controlling the patient’s vital functions during the procedure and assessing the medical needs in the post-operative room. The number of anesthesiologists in the United States has more than doubled since the 1970s, as has the improvement and success of operative care. In addition, complications from anesthesiology have declined dramatically. Over 40 million anesthetics are administered in the United States each year, with only 1 in 250,000 causing death. Questions 29-34 Do the following statements agree with the information in Passage 3? In boxes 29-34 on your Answer Sheet, write TRUE if the statement is true according to the passage. FALSE if the statement contradicts the passage. NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the passage. 29 Dioscorides’ book, De materia medica, fell out of use after 60 A.D. 30 Mandragora was used as an anesthetic during the Middle Ages. 31 Nitrous oxide can cause the user to both laugh and cry. 32 During the second half of the 19th century, most dentists used anesthesia. 33 Anesthesiologists in the United States are required to have 12 years of education and training. 34 There are fewer anesthesiologists in the United States now than there were 40 years ago. Questions 35-40 Match each fact about anesthesia with the type of anesthetic that it refers to. There are more types of anesthetics listed than facts, so you won’t use them all. Write the correct letter, A-H, in boxes 35-40 on your Answer Sheet. Types of Anesthetic A general anesthetic B local anesthetic C regional anesthetic D chloroform E ether F nitrous oxide G opium H mandrake 35 used by sprinkling on a handkerchief 36 used on only one specific part of the body 37 used by boiling with wine 38 used first during a dental procedure 39 used to stop feeling over a larger area of the body 40 used in the first anesthetic machine Answers 1. vi 2. ii 3. iii 4. vii 5. v 6. false 7. true 8. true 9. false 10. not given 11. B 12. D 13. H 14. A 15. G 16. F 17. D 18. B 19. E 20. C 21. I 22. K 23. C 24. E 25. G 26. A 27. H 28. F 29. false 30. true 31. true 32. not given 33. true 34. false 35. D 36. B 37. H 38. F 39. C 40. E

The Dover Bronze Age Boat It was 1992. In England, workmen were building a new road through the heart of Dover, to connect the ancient port and the Channel Tunnel, which, when it opened just two years later, was to be the first land link between Britain and Europe for over 10,000 years. A small team from the Canterbury Archaeological Trust (CAT) worked alongside the workmen, recording new discoveries brought to light by the machines. At the base of a deep shaft six metres below the modem streets a wooden structure was revealed. Cleaning away the waterlogged site overlying the timbers, archaeologists realised its true nature. They had found a prehistoric boat, preserved by the type of sediment in which it was buried. It was then named the Dover Bronze-Age Boat. About nine metres of the boat’s length was recovered; one end lay beyond the excavation and had to be left. What survived consisted essentially of four intricately carved oak planks: two on the bottom, joined along a central seam by a complicated system of wedges and timbers, and two at the side, curved and stitched to the others. The seams had been made watertight by pads of moss, fixed by wedges and yew stitches. The timbers that closed the recovered end of the boat had been removed in antiquity when it was abandoned, but much about its original shape could be deduced. There was also evidence for missing upper side planks. The boat was not a wreck, but had been deliberately discarded, dismantled and broken. Perhaps it had been ‘ritually killed’ at the end of its life, like other Bronze-Age objects. With hindsight, it was significant that the boat was found and studied by mainstream archaeologists who naturally focused on its cultural context. At the time, ancient boats were often considered only from a narrower technological perspective, but news about the Dover boat reached a broad audience. In 2002, on the tenth anniversary of the discovery, the Dover Bronze-Age Boat Trust hosted a conference, where this meeting of different traditions became apparent. Alongside technical papers about the boat, other speakers explored its social and economic contexts, and the religious perceptions of boats in Bronze-Age societies. Many speakers came from overseas, and debate about cultural connections was renewed. Within seven years of excavation, the Dover boat had been conserved and displayed, but it was apparent that there were issues that could not be resolved simply by studying the old wood. Experimental archaeology seemed to be the solution: a boat reconstruction, half-scale or full-sized, would permit assessment of the different hypotheses regarding its build and the missing end. The possibility of returning to Dover to search for the boat’s unexcavated northern end was explored, but practical and financial difficulties were insurmountable – and there was no guarantee that the timbers had survived the previous decade in the changed environment. Detailed proposals to reconstruct the boat were drawn up in 2004. Archaeological evidence was beginning to suggest a Bronze-Age community straddling the Channel, brought together by the sea, rather than separated by it. In a region today divided by languages and borders, archaeologists had a duty to inform the general public about their common cultural heritage. The boat project began in England but it was conceived from the start as a European collaboration. Reconstruction was only part of a scheme that would include a major exhibition and an extensive educational and outreach programme. Discussions began early in 2005 with archaeological bodies, universities and heritage organisations either side of the Channel. There was much enthusiasm and support, and an official launch of the project was held at an international seminar in France in 2007. Financial support was confirmed in 2008 and the project then named BOAT 1550BC got under way in June 2011. A small team began to make the boat at the start of 2012 on the Roman Lawn outside Dover museum. A full-scale reconstruction of a mid-section had been made in 1996, primarily to see how Bronze- Age replica tools performed. In 2012, however, the hull shape was at the centre of the work, so modem power tools were used to carve the oak planks, before turning to prehistoric tools for finishing. It was decided to make the replica half-scale for reasons of cost and time, and synthetic materials were used for the stitching, owing to doubts about the seeding and tight timetable. Meanwhile, the exhibition was being prepared ready for opening in July 2012 at the Castle Museum in Boulogne-sur-Mer. Entitled ‘Beyond the Horizon: Societies of the Channel & North Sea 3,500 years ago’, it brought together for the first time a remarkable collection of Bronze-Age objects, including many new discoveries for commercial archaeology and some of the great treasure of the past. The reconstructed boat, as a symbol of the maritime connections that bound together the communities either side of the Channel, was the centerpiece. Questions 1-5 Complete the flow chart below. Write NO MORE THAN ONE WORD from the passage. Key Events 1992 – the boat was discovered during the construction of a (1)………………..2002 – an international (2)………………was held to gather information2004 – (3)……………….for the reconstruction was reproduced2007 – the (4)……………..of boat 1550BC took place2012 – the Bronze Age (5)………………..featured the boat and other projects Questions 6-9 Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text? In boxes 6-9 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 6. Archaeologists realised that the boat had been damaged on purpose. 7. Initially, only the technological aspects of the boat were examined. 8. Archaeologists went back to the site to try and find the missing northern end of the boat. 9. Evidence found in 2004 suggested that the Bronze-Age Boat had been used for trade. Questions 10-13 Answer the questions below. Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORD OR A NUMBER from the passage. 10. How far under the ground was the boat found? 11. What natural material had been secured to the boat to prevent water entering? 12. What aspect of the boat was the focus of the 2012 reconstruction? 13. Which two factors influenced the decision not to make a full scale reconstruction of the boat? The Changing Role Of Airports A In recent times developing commercial revenues has become more challenging for airports due to a combination of factors, such as increased competition from Internet shopping, restrictions on certain sales, such as tobacco, and new security procedures that have had an impact on the dwell time of passengers. Moreover, the global economic downturn has caused a reduction in passenger numbers while those that are travelling generally have less money to spend. This has meant that the share of revenue from non-aeronautical revenues actually peaked at 54% at the turn of the century and has subsequently declined slightly. Meanwhile, the pressures to control the level of aeronautical revenues are as strong as ever due to the poor financial health of many airlines and the rapid rise of the low-cost carrier sector. B Some of the more obvious solutions to growing commercial revenues, such as extending the merchandising space or expanding the variety of shopping opportunities, have already been tried to their limit at many airports. A more radical solution is to find new sources of commercial revenue within the terminal, and this has been explored by many airports over the last decade or so. As a result, many terminals are now much more than just shopping malls and offer an array of entertainment, leisure, and beauty and wellness facilities. At this stage of facilities provision, the airport also has the possibility of taking on the role of the final destination rather than merely a facilitator of access. C At the same time, airports have been developing and expanding the range of services that they provide specifically for the business traveller in the terminal. This includes offering business centres that supply support services, meeting or conference rooms and other space for special events. Within this context, Jarach (2001) discusses how dedicated meetings facilities located within the terminal and managed directly by the airport operator may be regarded as an expansion of the concept of airline lounges or as a way to reconvert abandoned or underused areas of terminal buildings. Previously it was primarily airport hotels and other facilities offered in the surrounding area of the airport that had the potential to take on this role and become active as a business space (McNeill, 2009). D When an airport location can be promoted as a business venue, this may increase the overall appeal of the airport and help it become more competitive in both attracting and retaining airlines and their passengers. In particular, the presence of meeting facilities could become one of the determining factors taken into consideration when business people are choosing airlines and where they change their planes. This enhanced attractiveness itself may help to improve the airport operator’s financial position and future prospects, but clearly this will be dependent on the competitive advantage that the airport is able to achieve in comparison with other venues. E In 2011, an online airport survey was conducted and some of the areas investigated included the provision and use of meeting facilities at airports and the perceived role and importance of these facilities in generating income and raising passenger numbers. In total, there were responses from staff at 1 54 airports and 68% of these answered ‘yes’ to the question: Does your airport own and have meetings facilities available for hire? The existence of meeting facilities therefore seems high at airports. In addition, 28% of respondents that did not have meeting facilities stated that they were likely to invest in them during the next five years. The survey also asked to what extent respondents agreed or disagreed with a number of statements about the meeting facilities at their airport. 49% of respondents agreed that they have put more investment into them during recent years; 41% agreed that they would invest more in the immediate future. These are fairly high proportions considering the recent economic climate. F The survey also asked airports with meeting facilities to estimate what proportion of users are from the local area, i.e. within a 90-minute drive from the airport, or from abroad. Their findings show that meeting facilities provided by the majority of respondents tend to serve local versus non-local or foreign needs. 63% of respondents estimated that over 60% of users are from the local area. Only 3% estimated that over 80% of users are from abroad. It is therefore not surprising that the facilities are of limited importance when it comes to increasing use of flights at the airport: 16% of respondents estimated that none of the users of their meeting facilities use flights when travelling to or from them, while 56% estimated that 20% or fewer of the users of their facilities use flights. G The survey asked respondents with meeting facilities to estimate how much revenue their airport earned from its meeting facilities during the last financial year. Average revenue per airport was just $1 2,959. Meeting facilities are effectively a non-aeronautical source of airport revenue. Only 1% of respondents generated more than 20% non-aeronautical revenue from their meetings facilities; none generated more than 40%. Given the focus on local demand, it is not surprising that less than a third of respondents agreed that their meeting facilities support business and tourism development in their home region or country. H The findings of this study suggest that few airports provide meetings facilities as a serious commercial venture. It may be that, as owners of large property, space is available for meeting facilities at airports and could play an important role in serving the needs of the airport, its partners, and stakeholders such as government and the local community. Thus, while the local orientation means that competition with other airports is likely to be minimal, competition with local providers of meetings facilities is likely to be much greater. Questions 14-18 The text has eight paragraphs, A-H. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter, A-H, in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet. N.B. You may use any letter more than once. 14 evidence that a significant number of airports provide meeting facilities 15 a statement regarding the fact that no further developments are possible in some areas of airport trade 16 reference to the low level of income that meeting facilities produce for airports 17 mention of the impact of budget airlines on airport income 18 examples of airport premises that might be used for business purposes Questions 19-22 Complete the sentences below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 19-22 on your answer sheet. 19 The length of time passengers spend shopping at airports has been affected by updated…………………… 20 Airports with a wide range of recreational facilities can become a……………………………for people rather than a means to travel. 21 Both passengers and……………………………may feel encouraged to use and develop a sense of loyalty towards airports that market their business services. 22 Airports that supply meeting facilities may need to develop a…………………………..over other venues. Questions 23-26 Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text for each answer. Survey findings Despite financial constraints due to the (23)…………………………………. , a significant percentage of airports provide and wish to further support business meeting facilities. Also, just under 30% of the airports surveyed plan to provide these facilities within (24)…………………………………. However, the main users of the facilities are (25)……………………….. and as many as 16% of respondents to the survey stated that their users did not take any (26)…………………………………… at the airport. Is Photography Art? This may seem a pointless question today. Surrounded as we are by thousands of photographs, most of us take for granted that, in addition to supplying information and seducing customers, camera images also serve as decoration, afford spiritual enrichment, and provide significant insights into the passing scene. But in the decades following the discovery of photography, this question reflected the search for ways to fit the mechanical medium into the traditional schemes of artistic expression. The much-publicized pronouncement by painter Paul Delaroche that the daguerreotype* signalled the end of painting is perplexing because this clever artist also forecast the usefulness of the medium for graphic artists in a letter written in 1839. Nevertheless, it is symptomatic of the swing between the outright rejection and qualified acceptance of the medium that was fairly typical of the artistic establishment. Discussion of the role of photography in art was especially spirited in France, where the internal policies of the time had created a large pool of artists, but it was also taken up by important voices in England. In both countries, public interest in this topic was a reflection of the belief that national stature and achievement in the arts were related. From the maze of conflicting statements and heated articles on the subject, three main positions about the potential of camera art emerged. The simplest, entertained by many painters and a section of the public, was that photographs should not be considered ‘art’ because they were made with a mechanical device and by physical and chemical phenomena instead of by human hand and spirit; to some, camera images seemed to have more in common with fabric produced by machinery in a mill than with handmade creations fired by inspiration. The second widely held view, shared by painters, some photographers, and some critics, was that photographs would be useful to art but should not be considered equal in creativeness to drawing and painting. Lastly, by assuming that the process was comparable to other techniques such as etching and lithography, a fair number of individuals realized that camera images were or could be as significant as handmade works of art and that they might have a positive influence on the arts and on culture in general. Artists reacted to photography in various ways. Many portrait painters – miniaturists in particular – who realized that photography represented the ‘handwriting on the wall’ became involved with daguerreotyping or paper photography in an effort to save their careers; some incorporated it with painting, while others renounced painting altogether. Still other painters, the most prominent among them the French painter, Jean- Auguste-Dominique Ingres, began almost immediately to use photography to make a record of their own output and also to provide themselves with source material for poses and backgrounds, vigorously denying at the same time its influence on their vision or its claims as art. The view that photographs might be worthwhile to artists was enunciated in considerable detail by Lacan and Francis Wey. 1‘he latter, an art and literary critic, who eventually recognised that camera images could be inspired as well as informative, suggested that they would lead to greater naturalness in the graphic depiction of anatomy, clothing, likeness, expression, and landscape. By studying photographs, true artists, he claimed, would be relieved of menial tasks and become free to devote themselves to the more important spiritual aspects of their work. Wey left unstated what the incompetent artist might do as an alternative, but according to the influential French critic and poet Charles Baudelaire, writing in response to an exhibition of photography in 1859, lazy and untalented painters would become photographers. Fired by a belief in art as an imaginative embodiment of cultivated ideas and dreams, Baudelaire regarded photography as ‘a very humble servant of art and science’; a medium largely unable to transcend ‘external reality’. For this critic, photography was linked with ‘the great industrial madness’ of the time, which in his eyes exercised disastrous consequences on the spiritual qualities of life and art. Eugene Delacroix was the most prominent of the French artists who welcomed photography as help-mate but recognized its limitations. Regretting that ‘such a wonderful invention’ had arrived so late in his lifetime, he still took lessons in daguerreotyping, and both commissioned and collected photographs. Delacroix’s enthusiasm for the medium can be sensed in a journal entry noting that if photographs were used as they should be, an artist might ‘raise himself to heights that we do not yet know’. The question of whether the photograph was document or art aroused interest in England also. The most important statement on this matter was an unsigned article that concluded that while photography had a role to play, it should not be ‘constrained’ into ‘competition’ with art; a more stringent viewpoint led critic Philip Gilbert Hamerton to dismiss camera images as ‘narrow in range, emphatic in assertion, telling one truth for ten falsehoods’. These writers reflected the opposition of a section of the cultural elite in England and France to the ‘cheapening of art’ which the growing acceptance and purchase of camera pictures by the middle class represented. Technology made photographic images a common sight in the shop windows of Regent Street and Piccadilly in London and the commercial boulevards of Paris. In London, for example, there were at the time some commercial establishments where portraits, landscapes, and photographic reproductions of works of art could be bought. This appeal to the middle class convinced the elite that photographs would foster a desire for realism instead of idealism, even though some critics recognized that the work of individual photographers might display an uplifting style and substance that was consistent with the defining characteristics of art. Questions 27-30 Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D. 27. What is the writer’s main point in the first paragraph? A. Photography is used for many different purposes B. Photographers and artists have the same principal aims C. Photography has not always been a readily accepted art form D. Photographers today are more creative than those of the past 28. What public view about artists was shared by the French and the English? A. that only artists could reflect a culture’s true values B. that only artists were qualified to judge photography C. that artists could lose work as a result of photography D. that artistic success raised a country’s international profile 29. What does the writer mean in line 59 by ‘the handwriting on the wall’? A. an example of poor talent B. a message that cannot be trusted C. an advertisement for something new D. a signal that something bad will happen 30. What was the result of the widespread availability of photographs to the middle classes? A. the most educated worried about its impact on public taste B. it helped artists appreciate the merits of photography C. improvements were made in photographic methods D. it led to a reduction in price of photographs Questions 31-34 Completed the summary of paragraph 3 using the list of words A-G below. A inventive B similar C beneficial D next E mixed F justified G inferior Camera art In the early days of photography, opinions on its future were (31)………………………………, but three clear views emerged. A large number of artists and ordinary people saw photographs as (32)…………………………………..to paintings because of the way they were produced. Another popular view was that photographs could have a role to play in the art world, despite the photographer being less (33)………………………………….Finally, a smaller number of people suspected that the impact of photography on art and society could be (34)…………………….. Questions 35-40 Look at the following statements and the list of people, A-E, below. Match each statement with the correct person. Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 35-40 on your answer sheet. 35 He claimed that photography would make paintings more realistic. 36 He highlighted the limitations and deceptions of the camera. 37 He documented his production of artwork by photographing his works. 38 He noted the potential for photography to enrich artistic talent. 39 He based some of the scenes in his paintings on photographs. 40 He felt photography was part of the trend towards greater mechanisation. A Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres B Francis Wey C Charles Baudelaire D Eugene Delacroix E Philip Gilbert Hamerton Answers 1. road 2. conference 3. proposals 4. launch 5. exhibition 6. true 7. false 8. false 9. not given 10. 6 11. (pads of) moss 12. hull (shape) 13. cost and time 14. E 15. B 16. G 17. A 18. C 19. security procedures 20. final desination 21. airlines 22. competitive advantage 23. economic downturn 24. five years 25. local (people) 26. flights 27. C 28. D 29. D 30. A 31. E 32. G 33. A 34. C 35. B 36. E 37. A 38. D 39. A 40. C

Flying tortoises A Forests of spiny cacti cover much of the uneven lava plains that separate the interior of the Galapagos island of Isabela from the Pacific Ocean. With its five distinct volcanoes, the island resembles a lunar landscape. Only the thick vegetation at the skirt of the often cloud-covered peak of Sierra Negra offers respite from the barren terrain below. This inhospitable environment is home to the giant Galapagos tortoise. Some time after the Galapagos’s birth, around five million years ago, the islands were colonised by one or more tortoises from mainland South America. As these ancestral tortoises settled on the individual islands, the different populations adapted to their unique environments, giving rise to at least 14 different subspecies. Island life agreed with them. In the absence of significant predators, they grew to become the largest and longest-living tortoises on the planet, weighing more than 400 kilograms, occasionally exceeding 1,8 metres in length and living for more than a century. B Before human arrival, the archipelago’s tortoises numbered in the hundreds of thousands. From the 17th century onwards, pirates took a few on board for food, but the arrival of whaling ships in the 1790s saw this exploitation grow exponentially. Relatively immobile and capable of surviving for months without food or water, the tortoises were taken on board these ships to act as food supplies during long ocean passages. Sometimes, their bodies were processed into high- grade oil. In total, an estimated 200,000 animals were taken from the archipelago before the 20th century. This historical exploitation was then exacerbated when settlers came to the islands. They hunted the tortoises and destroyed their habitat to clear land for agriculture. They also introduced alien species – ranging from cattle, pigs, goats, rats and dogs to plants and ants – that either prey on the eggs and young tortoises or damage or destroy their habitat. C Today, only 11 of the original subspecies survive and of these, several are highly endangered. In 1989, work began on a tortoise-breeding centre just outside the town of Puerto Villamil on Isabela, dedicated to protecting the island’s tortoise populations. The centre’s captive-breeding programme proved to be extremely successful, and it eventually had to deal with an overpopulation problem. D The problem was also a pressing one. Captive-bred tortoises can’t be reintroduced into the wild until they’re at least five years old and weigh at least 4,5 kilograms, at which point their size and weight – and their hardened shells – are sufficient to protect them from predators. But if people wait too long after that point, the tortoises eventually become too large to transport. E For years, repatriation efforts were carried out in small numbers, with the tortoises carried on the backs of men over weeks of long, treacherous hikes along narrow trails. But in November 2010, the environmentalist and Galapagos National Park liaison officer Godfrey Merlin, a visiting private motor yacht captain and a helicopter pilot gathered around a table in a small cafe in Puerto Ayora on the island of Santa Cruz to work out more ambitious reintroduction. The aim was to use a helicopter to move 300 of the breeding centre’s tortoises to various locations close to Sierra Negra. F This unprecedented effort was made possible by the owners of the 67-metre yacht White Cloud, who provided the Galapagos National Park with free use of their helicopter and its experienced pilot, as well as the logistical support of the yacht, its captain and crew. Originally an air ambulance, the yacht’s helicopter has a rear double door and a large internal space that’s well suited for cargo, so a custom crate was designed to hold up to 33 tortoises with a total weight of about 150 kilograms. This weight, together with that of the fuel, pilot and four crew, approached the helicopter’s maximum payload, and there were times when it was clearly right on the edge of the helicopter’s capabilities. During a period of three days, a group of volunteers from the breeding centre worked around the clock to prepare the young tortoises for transport. Meanwhile, park wardens, dropped off ahead of time in remote locations, cleared landing sites within the thick brush, cacti and lava rocks. G Upon their release, the juvenile tortoises quickly spread out over their ancestral territory, investigating their new surroundings and feeding on the vegetation. Eventually, one tiny tortoise came across a fully grown giant who had been lumbering around the island for around a hundred years. The two stood side by side, a powerful symbol of the regeneration of an ancient species. Questions 1-7 Reading passage 1 has seven paragraphs A-G. Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below. List of headings i The importance of getting the timing right ii Young meets old iii Developments to the disadvantage of tortoise populations iv Planning a bigger idea v Tortoises populate the islands vi Carrying out a carefully prepared operation vii Looking for a home for the islands’ tortoises viii The start of the conservation project 1. Paragraph A 2. Paragraph B 3. Paragraph C 4. Paragraph D 5. Paragraph E 6. Paragraph F 7. Paragraph G Questions 8-13 Complete the notes below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. The decline of the Galapagos tortoise • Originally from mainland South America • Numbers on Galapagos islands increased due to lack of predators • 17th century: small numbers taken onto ships used by (8)……………………….. • 1790s: very large numbers taken onto whaling ships kept for (9)………………………and also used to produce (10)…………………………. • Hunted by (11)………………………..on the islands • Habitat destruction: for the establishment of agriculture and by various (12)…………………………not native to the islands which also fed on baby tortoises and tortoises’ (13)………………………. The Intersection of Health Sciences and Geography A While many diseases that affect humans have been eradicated due to improvements in vaccinations and the availability of healthcare, there are still areas around the world where certain health issues are more prevalent. In a world that is far more globalised than ever before, people come into contact with one another through travel and living closer and closer to each other. As a result, super-viruses and other infections resistant to antibiotics are becoming more and more common. B Geography can often play a very large role in the health concerns of certain populations. For instance, depending on where you live, you will not have the same health concerns as someone who lives in a different geographical region. Perhaps one of the most obvious examples of this idea is malaria-prone areas, which are usually tropical regions that foster a warm and damp environment in which the mosquitos that can give people this disease can grew. Malaria is much less of a problem in high-altitude deserts, for instance. C In some countries, geographical factors influence the health and well-being of the population in very obvious ways. In many large cities, the wind is not strong enough to clear the air of the massive amounts of smog and pollution that cause asthma, lung problems, eyesight issues and more in the people who live there. Part of the problem is, of course, the massive number of cars being driven, in addition to factories that run on coal power. The rapid industrialisation of some countries in recent years has also led to the cutting down of forests to allow for the expansion of big cities, which makes it even harder to fight the pollution with the fresh air that is produced by plants. D It is in situations like these that the field of health geography comes into its own. It is an increasingly important area of study in a world where diseases like polio are re-emerging, respiratory diseases continue to spread, and malaria-prone areas are still fighting to find a better cure. Health geography is the combination of, on the one hand, knowledge regarding geography and methods used to analyse and interpret geographical information, and on the other, the study of health, diseases and healthcare practices around the world. The aim of this hybrid science is to create solutions for common geography-based health problems. While people will always be prone to illness, the study of how geography affects our health could lead to the eradication of certain illnesses, and the prevention of others in the future. By understanding why and how we get sick, we can change the way we treat illness and disease specific to certain geographical locations. E The geography of disease and ill health analyses the frequency with which certain diseases appear in different parts of the world, and overlays the data with the geography of the region, to see if there could be a correlation between the two. Health geographers also study factors that could make certain individuals or a population more likely to be taken ill with a specific health concern or disease, as compared with the population of another area. Health geographers in this field are usually trained as healthcare workers, and have an understanding of basic epidemiology as it relates to the spread of diseases among the population. F Researchers study the interactions between humans and their environment that could lead to illness (such as asthma in places with high levels of pollution) and work to create a clear way of categorising illnesses, diseases and epidemics into local and global scales. Health geographers can map the spread of illnesses and attempt to identify the reasons behind an increase or decrease in illnesses, as they work to find a way to halt the further spread or re-emergence of diseases in vulnerable populations. G The second subcategory of health geography is the geography of healthcare provision. This group studies the availability (of lack thereof) of healthcare resources to individuals and populations around the world. In both developed and developing nations there is often a very large discrepancy between the options available to people in different social classes, income brackets, and levels of education. Individuals working in the area of the geography of healthcare provision attempt to assess the levels of healthcare in the area (for instance, it may be very difficult for people to get medical attention because there is a mountain between their village and the nearest hospital). These researchers are on the frontline of making recommendations regarding policy to international organisations, local government bodies and others. H The field of health geography is often overlooked, but it constitutes a huge area of need in the fields of geography and healthcare. If we can understand how geography affects our health no matter where in the world we are located, we can better treat disease, prevent illness, and keep people safe and well. Questions 14-19 Reading passage 2 has eight sections A-H. Which paragraph contains the following information? NB You may use any letter more than once. 14. an acceptance that not all diseases can be totally eliminated 15. examples of physical conditions caused by human behavior 16. a reference to classifying diseases on the basis of how far they extend gepgraphically 17. reasons why the level of access to healthcare can vary within a country 18. a description of healthy geography as a mixture of different academic fields 19. a description of the type of area where a particular illness is rare Questions 20-26 Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. 20. Certain diseases have disappeared thanks to better…………………………….and healthcare. 21. Because there is more contact between people………………………….are losing their usefulness. 22. Disease causing……………………….are most likely to be found in hot, damp regions. 23. One cause of pollution is………………………….that burn a particular fuel. 24. The growth of cities often has an impact on nearby. 25. …………………………………is one disease that is growing after having been eradicated. 26. A physical barrier such as a……………………………can prevent people from reaching a hospital. Music and the emotions Why does music make us feel? On the one hand, music is a purely abstract art form, devoid of language or explicit ideas. And yet, even though music says little, it still manages to touch us deeply. When listening to our favourite songs, our body betrays all the symptoms of emotional arousal. The pupils in our eyes dilate, our pulse and blood pressure rise, the electrical conductance of our skin is lowered, and the cerebellum, a brain region associated with bodily movement, becomes strangely active. Blood is even re-directed to the muscles in our legs. In other words, sound stirs us at our biological roots. A recent paper in Neuroscience by a research team in Montreal, Canada, marks an important step in repealing the precise underpinnings of ‘the potent pleasurable stimulus’ that is music. Although the study involves plenty of fancy technology, including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and ligand-based positron emission tomography (PET) scanning, the experiment itself was rather straightforward. After screening 217 individuals who responded to advertisements requesting people who experience ‘chills’ to instrumental music, the scientists narrowed down the subject pool to ten. They then asked the subjects to bring in their playlist of favourite songs – virtually every genre was represented, from techno to tango – and played them the music while their brain activity was monitored. Because the scientists were combining methodologies (PET and fMRI), they were able to obtain an impressively exact and detailed portrait of music in the brain. The first thing they discovered is that music triggers the production of dopamine – a chemical with a key role in setting people’s moods – by the neurons (nerve cells) in both the dorsal and ventral regions of the brain. As these two regions have long been linked with the experience of pleasure, this finding isn’t particularly surprising. What is rather more significant is the finding that the dopamine neurons in the caudate – a region of the brain involved in learning stimulus-response associations, and in anticipating food and other ‘reward’ stimuli – were at their most active around 15 seconds before the participants’ favourite moments in the music. The researchers call this the ‘anticipatory phase’ and argue that the purpose of this activity is to help us predict the arrival of our favourite part. The question, of course, is what all these dopamine neurons are up to. Why are they so active in the period preceding the acoustic climax? After all, we typically associate surges of dopamine with pleasure, with the processing of actual rewards. And yet, this cluster of cells is most active when the ‘chills’ have yet to arrive, when the melodic pattern is still unresolved. One way to answer the question is to look at the music and not the neurons. While music can often seem (at least to the outsider) like a labyrinth of intricate patterns, it turns out that the most important part of every song or symphony is when the patterns break down, when the sound becomes unpredictable. If the music is too obvious, it is annoyingly boring, like an alarm clock. Numerous studies, after all, have demonstrated that dopamine neurons quickly adapt to predictable rewards. If we know what’s going to happen next, then we don’t get excited. This is why composers often introduce a key note in the beginning of a song, spend most of the rest of the piece in the studious avoidance of the pattern, and then finally repeat it only at the end. The longer we are denied the pattern we expect, the greater the emotional release when the pattern returns, safe and sound. To demonstrate this psychological principle, the musicologist Leonard Meyer, in his classic book Emotion and Meaning in Music (1956), analysed the 5th movement of Beethoven’s String Quartet in C-sharp minor, Op. 131. Meyer wanted to show how music is defined by its flirtation with – but not submission to – our expectations of order. Meyer dissected 50 measures (bars) of the masterpiece, showing how Beethoven begins with the clear statement of a rhythmic and harmonic pattern and then, in an ingenious tonal dance, carefully holds off repeating it. What Beethoven does instead is suggest variations of the pattern. Me wants to preserve an element of uncertainty in his music, making our brains beg for the one chord he refuses to give us. Beethoven saves that chord for the end. According to Meyer, it is the suspenseful tension of music, arising out of our unfulfilled expectations, that is the source of the music’s feeling. While earlier theories of music focused on the way a sound can refer to the real world of images and experiences – its ‘connotative’ meaning – Meyer argued that the emotions we find in music come from the unfolding events of the music itself. This ‘embodied meaning’ arises from the patterns the symphony invokes and then ignores. It is this uncertainty that triggers the surge of dopamine in the caudate, as we struggle to figure out what will happen next. We can predict some of the notes, but we can’t predict them all, and that is what keeps us listening, waiting expectantly for our reward, for the pattern to be completed. Questions 27-31 Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. The Montreal Study Participants who were recruited for the study through advertisements had their brain activity monitored while listening to their favourite music. It was noted that the music stimulated the brain’s neurons to release a substance called (27)……………………….in two of the parts of the brain which are associated with feeling (28)………………………….. Researchers also observed that the neurons in the area of the brain called the (29)……………………..were particularly active just before the participants’ favourite moments in the music – the period known as the (30)……………………………….Activity in this part of the brain is associated with the expectation of reward stimuli such as (31)…………………………. Questions 32-36 Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D. 32. What point does the writer emphasise in the first paragraph? A. how dramatically our reactions to music can vary B. how intense our physical responses to music can be C. how little we know about the way that music affects us D. how much music can tell us about how our brains operate 33. What view of the Montreal study does the writer express in the second paragraph? A. its aims were innovative B. the approach was too simplistic C. it produces some remarkably precise data D. the technology used was unnecessarily complex 34. What does the writer find interesting about the results of the Montreal study? A. the timing of participants’ neural responses to the music B. the impact of the music on participants’ emotional state C. the section of participants’ brains which was activated by the music D. the type of music which has the strongest effect on the participants’ brains 35. Why does the writer refer to Meyer’s work on music and emotion? A. to propose an original theory about the subject B. to offer support for the findings of the Montreal study C. to recommend the need for further research into the subject D. to present a view which opposes that of the Montreal researchers 36. According to Leonard Meyer, what causes the listener’s emotional response to music? A. the way the music evokes poignant memories in the listener B. the association of certain musical chords with certain feelings C. the listener’s sympathy with the composer’s intentions D. the internal structure of the musical composition Questions 37-40 Complete each sentence with the correct ending A-F below. 37. The Montreal researchers discovered that 38. Many studies have demonstrated that 39. Meyer’s analysis of Beethoven’s music shows that 40. Earlier theories of music suggested that A. Our response to music depends on our initial emotional state. B. neuron activity decreases if outcomes become predictable. C. emotive music can bring to mind actual pictures and events. D. experiences in our past can influence our emotional reaction to music. E. emotive music delays giving listeners what they expect to hear. F. neuron activity increases prior to key points in a musical piece. Answers 1. v 2. iii 3. viii 4. i 5. iv 6. vi 7. ii 8. pirates 9. food 10. oil 11. settlers 12. species 13. eggs 14. D 15. C 16. F 17. G 18. D 19. B 20. vaccinations 21. antibiotics 22. mosquitoes 23. factories 24. forests 25. polio 26. mountain 27. dopamine 28. pleasure 29. caudate 30. anticipatory phase 31. food 32. B 33. C 34. A 35. B 36. D 37. F 38. B 39. E 40. C

100 sentences with adjectives and adverbs, each requiring the correct degree to complete the sentence 1. She ran __________ (fast) than anyone else in the race. Answer: faster 2. This is the __________ (tall) building in the city. Answer: tallest 3. He is a __________ (good) singer than his brother. Answer: better 4. She plays the violin __________ (beautiful) in the orchestra. Answer: most beautifully 5. The car moved __________ (slow) in heavy traffic. Answer: more slowly 6. It was __________ (hot) yesterday than it is today. Answer: hotter 7. This is the __________ (expensive) item in the store. Answer: most expensive 8. The baby slept __________ (peaceful) throughout the night. Answer: peacefully 9. The child spoke __________ (loud) than his friends. Answer: more loudly 10. The coffee tastes __________ (good) with some sugar added. Answer: better 11. He is the __________ (intelligent) student in the class. Answer: most intelligent 12. The sun shines __________ (bright) in the morning. Answer: brightest 13. She sang __________ (beautiful) than anyone else at the competition. Answer: more beautifully 14. The dog barks __________ (loud) at night. Answer: more loudly 15. This is the __________ (interesting) book I have ever read. Answer: most interesting 16. The snowfall was __________ (heavy) than expected. Answer: heavier 17. The dessert tastes __________ (sweet) with a scoop of ice cream. Answer: sweeter 18. The students worked __________ (hard) to complete the project. Answer: harder 19. He spoke __________ (clear) so that everyone could understand him. Answer: more clearly 20. It was the __________ (exciting) game of the season. Answer: most exciting 21. The weather is getting __________ (warm) as spring approaches. Answer: warmer 22. She danced __________ (graceful) than the other performers. Answer: more gracefully 23. This is the __________ (difficult) puzzle I have ever attempted. Answer: most difficult 24. He speaks English __________ (fluent) than his classmates. Answer: more fluently 25. The car drives __________ (smooth) on the newly paved road. Answer: more smoothly 26. The storm grew __________ (intense) as the wind picked up. Answer: more intense 27. She painted the picture __________ (careful) to capture every detail. Answer: more carefully 28. It was the __________ (amazing) performance I have ever seen. Answer: most amazing 29. The little girl smiled __________ (happily) when she saw her birthday cake. Answer: happily 30. The coffee smells __________ (good) in the morning. Answer: better 31. He is the __________ (talented) artist in our art class. Answer: most talented 32. The music played __________ (soft) as everyone listened attentively. Answer: softly 33. This is the __________ (important) decision of my life. Answer: most important 34. The train arrived __________ (late) than expected. Answer: later 35. The flowers bloomed __________ (beautiful) in the spring garden. Answer: most beautifully 36. She handled the situation __________ (calm) despite the chaos. Answer: calmly 37. It was the __________ (delicious) meal I have ever tasted. Answer: most delicious 38. The runner finished the race __________ (quick) than anyone else. Answer: quicker 39. The baby giggled __________ (cute) when tickled. Answer: cutely 40. The car drives __________ (efficient) with its new engine. Answer: more efficiently 41. The sun sets __________ (beautiful) over the horizon. Answer: most beautifully 42. He is the __________ (athletic) player on the team. Answer: most athletic 43. She studied __________ (hard) for the exam. Answer: harder 44. The music played __________ (loud) at the concert. Answer: louder 45. This is the __________ (exciting) movie I have ever seen. Answer: most exciting 46. The flowers smell __________ (fragrant) in the garden. Answer: most fragrant 47. He performed the magic trick __________ (clever) than anyone else. Answer: more cleverly 48. The plane landed __________ (smooth) on the runway. Answer: more smoothly 49. The cake tastes __________ (sweet) with the frosting on top. Answer: sweeter 50. She speaks English __________ (fluent) among all the students. Answer: most fluently 51. He is the __________ (popular) person in school. Answer: most popular 52. The wind blew __________ (strong) during the storm. Answer: stronger 53. This is the __________ (challenging) puzzle I have ever attempted. Answer: most challenging 54. She spoke __________ (soft) so as not to wake the baby. Answer: softly 55. The sunset looked __________ (stunning) with vibrant colors. Answer: most stunning 56. He tackled the problem __________ (brave) despite the risks. Answer: bravely 57. It was the __________ (memorable) trip of our lives. Answer: most memorable 58. The car accelerated __________ (fast) on the open highway. Answer: faster 59. The baby slept __________ (peaceful) in her crib. Answer: peacefully 60. The coffee tastes __________ (strong) with an extra shot of espresso. Answer: stronger 61. The mountain peak is the __________ (high) in the entire range. Answer: highest 62. She sings __________ (beautiful) than anyone I know. Answer: more beautifully 63. This is the __________ (difficult) decision I have ever had to make. Answer: most difficult 64. He played the piano __________ (skillful) at the concert. Answer: most skillfully 65. The car drives __________ (smooth) on the newly paved road. Answer: more smoothly 66. It was the __________ (amazing) experience I have ever had. Answer: most amazing 67. She danced __________ (graceful) of all the dancers. Answer: most gracefully 68. The child spoke __________ (clear) so that everyone could understand. Answer: more clearly 69. The dog barked __________ (loud) when the doorbell rang. Answer: louder 70. The dessert tastes __________ (sweet) with a dollop of whipped cream. Answer: sweeter 71. He is the __________ (generous) person I know. Answer: most generous 72. The fire spread __________ (quick) through the dry grass. Answer: quickly 73. This is the __________ (fascinating) book I've read in a long time. Answer: most fascinating 74. She spoke __________ (loud) than everyone else in the room. Answer: more loudly 75. The sunset was __________ (breathtaking) with vibrant colors. Answer: most breathtaking 76. He handled the situation __________ (calm) than expected. Answer: more calmly 77. It was the __________ (delicious) meal we had during our trip. Answer: most delicious 78. The child played __________ (joyful) in the park. Answer: most joyfully 79. The car drives __________ (efficient) with its new engine. Answer: more efficiently 80. She danced __________ (graceful) at the ballet recital. Answer: most gracefully 81. He is the __________ (creative) artist in the gallery. Answer: most creative 82. The rain fell __________ (heavy) during the storm. Answer: heavily 83. This is the __________ (important) event of the year. Answer: most important 84. She ran __________ (quick) to catch the bus. Answer: quickly 85. The movie was __________ (entertaining) than I expected. Answer: more entertaining 86. He played the guitar __________ (skillful) at the concert. Answer: most skillfully 87. It was the __________ (memorable) trip of our lives. Answer: most memorable 88. The child laughed __________ (happily) at the funny joke. Answer: happily 89. The coffee tastes __________ (strong) with an extra shot of espresso. Answer: stronger 90. The wind blew __________ (gently) through the trees. Answer: gently 91. She is the __________ (talented) dancer in the company. Answer: most talented 92. The music played __________ (soft) in the background. Answer: softly 93. This is the __________ (difficult) task I have ever encountered. Answer: most difficult 94. He spoke __________ (clear) so that everyone could understand. Answer: more clearly 95. The flowers bloomed __________ (colorful) in the spring garden. Answer: most colorfully 96. The team played __________ (poor) in the first half. Answer: poorly 97. It was the __________ (exciting) match of the season. Answer: most exciting 98. The car drove __________ (smooth) on the newly paved road. Answer: more smoothly 99. The cake tastes __________ (sweet) with a hint of vanilla. Answer: sweeter 100. She spoke __________ (confident) in front of the large audience. Answer: more confidently

Collocations/A above average more than average, esp. in amount, age, height, weight etc. absolutely necessary totally or completely necessary abuse drugs to use drugs in a way that's harmful to yourself or others abuse of power the harmful or unethical use of power accept (a) defeat to accept the fact that you didn't win a game, match, contest, election, etc. accept a challenge to agree to do something difficult or dangerous accept an apology to forgive someone who says they're sorry accept an invitation to say "yes" after getting an invitation accept responsibility to take the blame when something goes wrong aches and pains mild pains that come and go, esp. from physical work or old age achieve a goal to do what you'd planned or hoped to do act suspiciously to behave in a way that makes people suspicious action movie a movie with lots of action and violence active ingredient the chemical in a drug, medicine or pesticide that makes it work active volcano a volcano that could erupt at any time actively involved playing an active role admit defeat to accept that you can't win a competition or achieve a goal against the law illegal all alone completely alone, or without friends or people you know all along continuously from when something begins all over completely finished almost certainly almost definitely alphabetical order an order based on the letters of an alphabet, with "a" being the first and "z" being the last in English alternative energy power or electricity produced by using energy from the sun, wind, water, etc. alternative medicine medical treatments using natural substances and traditional knowledge instead of pharmaceutical drugs and modern surgery answer a letter to write back to someone who sent you a letter answer a prayer to respond to a prayer answer a question to reply with information or an opinion after being asked a question answer an advertisement to contact a person or company after seeing their advertisement answer the door to go to the door and open it after someone knocks or rings the doorbell answer the phone to pick up a phone that's ringing and talk to whoever's calling any more (1) more of something you've already had or got any more (2) any longer, or as in the past or previously apply for a job to ask to be considered for a job you'd like to get arrive on time to arrive exactly when expected or scheduled to artificial limb a prosthetic arm or leg that replaces one that's been lost ask a favour to ask someone to do something for you because you need their help ask a question to ask somebody to tell you something ask for advice to ask someone what they think you should do ask for directions to ask someone to tell you the way to a place ask permission to ask your boss, teacher, parent, etc. if you can do something attract attention to create interest attract sb's attention to do something to make someone notice you awful lot more than expected, usual, normal, etc. Collocations/B back pay money a worker earned in the past but hasn't been paid yet back road a small country road back street a street in a town or city that's away from major roads or central areas back taxes taxes that weren't paid when they were due bad breath breath that doesn't smell nice bad diet an unhealthy diet bad habit a habit that badly affects you or other people, or that others think is wrong or bad bad loser someone who gets upset or angry when they lose bad mood a mood in which you're easily annoyed or angered bad temper a tendency to become angry quickly and easily badly damage to do a lot of damage to something badly hurt seriously injured balance a budget to make income and expenditure equal in a budget balanced diet a diet with the proper amounts of all necessary nutrients bare essentials things that are needed the most barely able (to do sth) only just able to do something basic right a fundamental right that we all share, or that all animals share bear a resemblance (to sb/sth) to look like, or be similar to, somebody or something beat a record to do something better, faster, longer, etc. than somebody else beat to death to beat a person or animal so badly that it causes death become increasingly become more and more best ever best until now best friends closest friends best possible the best that can be found or achieved big brother | big sister older brother, older sister big deal something that's very important or very special big decision very important decision big money a lot of money bitterly cold extremely cold, of weather, wind, rain, etc. bitterly disappointed extremely disappointed blind faith unquestioning belief in something, even when it's unreasonable or wrong blind loyalty unquestioning support under any circumstances blind obedience unquestioning obedience, even when you're told to do something you know is wrong blissfully ignorant unaware of something that might sadden or disturb you if you knew about it block of flats a building with flats or apartments on several levels or floors blow your nose to clear your nose of mucus by forcing air through it book a flight to buy a ticket for a flight on a plane boost morale to increase morale or enthusiasm within a group of people break a law to do something illegal break a promise to fail to do what you promised to do break a record to beat a previous record in sport, speed, sales, etc. break news to tell someone bad news breaking news current news that a media organization gives special or live coverage to bright future successful or happy future bright idea a brilliant, clever or original idea bring about change to cause or create change in something or someone bring attention to to make people aware of something bring to an end to conclude an event, a process, a sequence, etc. bring to justice to make somebody face trial or punishment for their crime broken home a family in which the parents have separated or divorced budget deficit a negative balance between revenues and spending Collocations/C Collocations beginning with C. Select a collocation for more details. call a meeting to order or invite people to hold a meeting call a name to say somebody's name loudly call a strike to decide that workers will protest by not going to work call an election to decide that an election will be held call attention to to make someone notice or consider someone or something call in sick to telephone your place of work and say you're not coming because you're sick call sb names to tease or bully somebody by calling them nasty or offensive names call the police to telephone the police, esp. in an emergency can't afford unable to buy or do something because it's too expensive or problematic can't help unable to stop yourself doing something you shouldn't do can't stand dislike someone or something very much carry weight to have authority or influence cast a spell to use magic to make something happen cast a vote to vote in an election or a poll cast doubt to make something seem less believable or less reliable casual clothes comfortable clothes you wear in your free time casual relationship a relationship that isn't serious or long-term catch a cold to become sick after being infected with a cold virus catch a glimpse to see something or someone for a moment only catch a whiff to smell something for a moment only catch sight of to suddenly see something or someone cause trouble (1) to create problems or difficulties for somebody or something cause trouble (2) to start fights or incite violence centre of attention the main focus of interest or attention certain amount some, or not very much but more than very little change course to go in a different direction change the subject to start talking about a different topic change your mind to change your opinion or decision claim responsibility to say that you're responsible for something clean energy energy or power supply that doesn't pollute or damage environments in its production or use clear message a message that's easy to understand clear understanding an understanding that's free of confusion or doubt close the gap to reduce the difference between people or things close together very near to each other, or separated by a short distance or time come alive become lively, active or exciting come close (to) almost do something, achieve something, complete something, etc. come to a conclusion to conclude, decide or believe something after thinking about it come to a realization to become aware of something come to a stop to stop moving or happening come to an end to finish, of an event, a performance, a meeting, etc. come to expect learn to expect that something is likely to happen come to sb's rescue to save someone or something from danger or failure come true to become real, or what you'd hoped for comfort food food you eat to make yourself feel better, esp. food you liked as a child commit suicide to deliberately kill oneself common knowledge something that nearly everyone knows common language a language that both you and the person you're talking to can speak completely different totally different conduct research to organize and carry out research into something consider a possibility to think about a possible choice, solution, outcome, etc. contact details details you need to contact someone, like a telephone number, email address, etc. cost a fortune cost a lot of money cover costs to make enough money to pay for costs like production, materials, labour, etc. cross sb's mind to briefly think of something crystal clear (1) completely clear or transparent crystal clear (2) easy to understand or very obvious cut and paste to select and copy text or a graphic from one part of a file or computer to another cut costs to reduce costs Collocations/D Collocations beginning with D. Select a collocation for more details. daily life life as experienced from day to day dead ahead straight ahead dead body corpse, or the body of someone who's died dead end (1) a point at which no further progress seems possible dead end (2) a street or road that traffic enters and leaves at one end only dead tired very tired dead-end job a job with no prospects for advancement deadly weapon any object that's used for killing deafening silence a silence that everyone notices declare war to officially announce that a country is going to war against another country deep sleep If you're in a deep sleep, you can't be easily woken. deeply divided seriously split by disputes or different opinions deeply held strongly held, esp. of beliefs, views, convictions, etc. deeply rooted (in) strongly connected to the past, esp. of beliefs, culture, prejudice, conflict, etc. deliver a baby to manage or assist in the birth of a baby departure time the exact time at which a plane, train, etc. is scheduled to leave desk job a job at a desk or in an office detailed description a description that includes many details diametrically opposed completely different direct flight a flight that doesn't stop on its way to a destination direct quote the exact words that a quoted person said or wrote directly opposite straight across from dirty joke a joke that's related to sex dirty laundry unwashed clothes, sheets, towels, etc. dirty player a player who breaks the rules or tries to hurt other players distant relative a relative you share distant family ties with do a deal to make an arrangement, esp. in business do a favour do something to help somebody do better to improve in performace or condition do business (with) to engage in business activity do damage to cause harm or damage do good to have a good effect on somebody or something do harm to have a bad effect on somebody or something do likewise do the same thing do the dishes to wash plates, cups, pots, pans, knives, forks, etc. used to cook and eat a meal do the ironing to iron clothes, sheets, etc. do the shopping to buy food and groceries do the washing to wash clothes, sheets, towels, etc. do well to perform well in a job, a game, an exam, etc. do work to put effort into a task or a job do your best do all you can to succeed do your duty do what you should do at work, at home, or for your community doesn't matter doesn't have any effect don't care to not be upset or concerned about something don't mind (1) don't care, or not be upset about something don't mind (2) to not dislike, or to not have an aversion to something drive (sb) crazy to make somebody feel very annoyed or upset drop the subject to stop talking about something dual nationality having citizenship in two different countries Collocations/E Collocations beginning with E. Select a collocation for more details. early days soon after something begins early night earlier bedtime than usual early riser someone who usually gets up early in the morning early start a beginning or departure early in the morning earn a living to work and earn money for yourself or your family easy answer a solution that's easy to find and adopt easy money money that's made without working hard easy question a question that most people can answer correctly easy target someone or something that's easy to attack or criticize eat properly to eat proper amounts of healthy food eat well to eat plenty of food eating habits what you usually eat and the way you eat it economic growth an increase in the size of an economy, or the rate of this educational game a game that helps students to learn eke out a living to earn just enough money to survive empty promises promises that probably won't be kept empty words words that aren't really meant, or that won't lead to action enter a plea to plead guilty or not guilty in a court of law enter politics to begin a career in politics entry-level job a job at the lowest level of pay or responsibility equal rights rights that are the same for all races, genders, classes, etc. equally important of the same importance essential services basic services like water, electricity, postal services, medical care, free education, etc. ethical investment investment in a company that's ethical, not harmful or exploitative ethical standards ethically acceptable levels of behaviour ethnic minority a group of people living in a country in which most other people are from another culture or race ethnic tensions bad feelings between people from different races or ethnic groups even number any whole number that can be exactly divided by two, such as 2, 4, 6, 8, etc. evenly matched If two opponents are evenly matched, they are equally likely to win. every single all of them exactly the same identical exceed expectations be more or better than expected express concern to say or show that you're worried about something express interest (in) to show that you're interested in something extend a deadline to give someone more time in which to do something Collocations/F Collocations beginning with F. Select a collocation for more details. face a challenge to have to deal with a challenging situation face down with the front or face towards the ground face the fact(s) to accept that something is real or true, esp. if it's difficult to accept fail miserably to fail very badly fair deal a reasonable deal in business or a morally correct arrangement fall asleep to go to sleep fall dramatically to fall quickly, esp. of prices, sales, rates, temperatures, etc. fall in love to suddenly feel love for someone you're attracted to false impression a misleading or incorrect image false teeth teeth that aren't natural familiar face someone you know personally far away a long way from somewhere far better (1) be much better far better (2) do much better far more much more, or to a much greater degree fast asleep sleeping deeply, or in a deep sleep fast becoming quickly becoming fatal accident an accident in which someone dies fatal mistake a bad mistake that has terrible consequences feel guilty to feel bad about what you have or haven't done feel strongly (about) to have a very strong, or passionate, opinion about something fight a fire to try to put out a fire fight a war to engage in, or resort to, war fight corruption to try to prevent corruption in government and business fight hard to try very hard to get or achieve something figure prominently to be an important part of a process, an event, a story, etc. fill a gap to fill a space or an opening fill in a form to complete a form by writing in the spaces find difficult to feel that something's difficult, esp. while trying to do it find time to make time available, or find room in your schedule fire a shot to make a gun shoot a bullet firmly established well established and unlikely to change flat battery a battery that no longer works, or needs recharging flat tyre a tyre that doesn't have enough air in it follow a pattern happen in a regular way, or according to a pattern follow advice to do what someone advises you to do follow directions to go the way you've been told to go, or do something as directed follow instructions to do what instructions or instructors tell you to do foreign policy policy relating to international or foreign issues free speech speech that isn't restricted by law, religion, censorship, etc. free spirit a person who doesn't behave in a conventional way front door the door at the front of a house front page the first page of a newspaper front row a row of seats at or near the front front seat any seat in the front of a vehicle, or the seat next to a car's driver fully understand to understand the full meaning or importance of something Collocations/G Collocations beginning with G. Select a collocation for more details. gain access to get into a place, or be given access to something or someone generally accepted accepted by most people get (sb) ready prepare yourself, or somebody else, for something get (sth) ready prepare something get a call to receive a telephone call from somebody get a chance to have an opportunity, or the time, to do something get a joke to understand a joke get a shock to be very surprised by something get a ticket to get a fine for parking illegally, speeding, etc. get angry to become angry about something get back together to become a couple or a group again after being apart get better to improve get better (at) to improve in skill or ability get changed (1) to be changed by someone or something get changed (2) to put on different clothes get dark to become dark, esp. when the sun goes down get dressed to put on clothes get into trouble to become involved in a bad, difficult or dangerous situation get lost to become lost, or be misplaced get married to marry somebody, or marry each other get old to become an old or elderly person get rid of (1) to throw away, give away or sell something you don't want anymore get rid of (2) to stop, or remove, something or someone that's annoying or upsetting you get sleep to spend time asleep get tired to become tired and feel like resting or sleeping get tired of to become bored or annoyed with something or somebody get to know to get familiar with somebody after spending time with them get to sleep to start sleeping get upset to become unhappy, disappointed or annoyed because of something get used to to become accustomed to something give a hand to give help, support or assistance give advice to tell somebody what you think they should do give birth If a mother gives birth, her unborn baby passes into the outside world. give evidence to say what you witnessed or know in a court of law or at an inquiry give notice to tell somebody that a job, or the occupation of a property, will end at a certain time give permission to allow or permit somebody to do something give rise to to cause or result in something give sb a call to telephone somebody give sb a chance to give somebody the opportunity to do something give sb a lift to take somebody somewhere in a car or other vehicle give sth a go to attempt something, esp. something you've never tried to do before give thought (to) to think about or consider something give up hope to stop hoping for something because you think it's no longer possible give way (1) to collapse due to weight or pressure give way (2) to yield, or let another vehicle go first, when driving in traffic go bald to become bald, or have hair fall out go bankrupt to be unable to pay debts and go out of business or into receivership go crazy (1) to become mentally ill go crazy (2) to get very excited go on a date to go out with someone you're dating go out of fashion to become unfashionable go smoothly happen without problems, difficulties or delays go unchallenged to not be challenged or corrected go unnoticed to not be seen or noticed go wrong to not go well, or to have bad results good cause an organization, activity or charity that helps people or animals in need good chance quite a high probability or likelihood good company If someone says you're good company, they enjoy spending time with you. good deal a fair deal or fair price good enough as good as necessary good luck good fortune good time an enjoyable or fun experience great deal of a very large amount of greatly appreciate to appreciate very much growing number (of) more and more, or an increasing number guilty conscience a feeling of shame or remorse after doing something wrong or bad guilty party person or organization guilty of doing something wrong or bad Collocations/H Collocations beginning with H. Select a collocation for more details. happy ending The last part of a story is a "happy ending" if all ends well for the main characters. happy hour a scheduled time when alcoholic drinks cost less than usual hard job a difficult job or task hard to believe difficult to believe hard to see (1) difficult to see hard to see (2) difficult to imagine hard to tell difficult to know or deduce something hard work any activity that requires a lot of energy or concentration hardly any almost none hardly ever almost never hardly likely very unlikely or very improbable hate to think to be afraid to, or not want to, imagine something have a baby to give birth to a baby have a chat to have a friendly talk with someone have a go (1) to have a turn at doing something have a go (2) to attempt to do something have a look to look at something have a right have a moral or legal claim or ability have a word to talk about something with somebody have access (to) to be able to get or use something have an effect (on) to cause a change have an idea to think of something have got to own, possess or have have got to must have room to have enough space for something have sex to have sexual contact with someone have the chance (to) to have the opportunity or the time have time to have enough time to do something have trouble to find it difficult to do something healthy diet a diet that's good for body's health heavily armed having or carrying many weapons heavily guarded guarded by many people heavy drinker someone who drinks a lot of alcohol heavy losses large or high losses, esp. of money or lives heavy schedule a schedule with many meetings, appointments, dates, etc. heavy smoker someone who smokes a lot of cigarettes heavy traffic traffics that's congested and moving slowly heavy workload If you have a heavy workload, you have a lot of work to do. hidden extras extra costs that companies or sellers try to hide from buyers high level a level that's above the normal or expected level high quality very good quality high standard very good standard highly regarded thought to be very good by many people highly unlikely very unlikely hold a referendum If a country holds a referendum, citizens can vote for or against introducing a new law or piece of legislation. hold an election to have or conduct an election hold an inquiry to have or conduct an official inquiry hold hands If two or more people hold hands, each person holds another person's hand. hold office to occupy a powerful position or role, esp. in government hold sb hostage to imprison somebody and demand something in exchange for their release hold sb prisoner to force somebody to stay somewhere hold talks to have formal or official discussions about an issue or a situation honest mistake a mistake that wasn't made deliberately, or had no bad intent hope so used to express hope that something's true human cost damage or loss caused to people or societies, incl. material loss, social costs, psychological damage, etc. human error a mistake caused by a person, and not by mechanical failure or natural forces human life human existence or human experience hurt sb's feelings to upset somebody by being insensitive to their feelings Collocations/I Collocations beginning with I. Select a collocation for more details. icy cold extremely cold icy wind very cold wind ill effects bad effects caused by something ill health poor health immediate action action taken right away, or without waiting immediate family your closest relatives by birth, meaning only your parents, brothers, sisters and children immediate future the period of time directly following the present impose conditions to set conditions or requirements that must be met or satisfied impose restrictions to place limits or bans on particular actions or activities impose sanctions to ban or limit trade or contact with a country in order to bring about a change of government or policy inextricably linked If two or more things are inextricably linked, the connections between them are essential or extremely close. innocent victim a person who wasn't involved in the events or actions that harmed them insect bite a bite or sting from an insect inside information information only known by people inside a particular organization intense pressure very strong or extreme pressure interest rate the percentage of a loan that borrowers must pay back in addition to the amount they borrowed internal injury an injury inside the body internal organ an organ inside the body invest heavily to spend a lot of money on something to improve or develop it irreparable damage damage that's too serious to repair issue a permit to give somebody an official document that permits them to do something Collocations/J Collocations beginning with J. Select a collocation for more details. jet fighter armed jet plane used in war job interview an interview you attend if you're trying to get a job job losses reductions in the number of jobs available job opportunity prospect or chance of finding a job join a club to become a member of a club join forces If two or more people or groups join forces, they work together to achieve a common goal. join the army to enlist and serve in the army joint account a bank account held jointly by two or more people joint effort something achieved or created by two or more people working together joint owners two or more people or parties who share ownership of something jump to a conclusion to decide, or make up your mind, before knowing all the facts junk food unhealthy food, esp. processed food with lots of fat, salt, sugar, etc. junk mail advertising material that's sent to people who haven't asked for it just about almost or very nearly just cause a cause that it is morally right or just just now (1) at this moment just now (2) a moment ago, or a very short time ago Collocations/J Collocations beginning with J. Select a collocation for more details. jet fighter armed jet plane used in war job interview an interview you attend if you're trying to get a job job losses reductions in the number of jobs available job opportunity prospect or chance of finding a job join a club to become a member of a club join forces If two or more people or groups join forces, they work together to achieve a common goal. join the army to enlist and serve in the army joint account a bank account held jointly by two or more people joint effort something achieved or created by two or more people working together joint owners two or more people or parties who share ownership of something jump to a conclusion to decide, or make up your mind, before knowing all the facts junk food unhealthy food, esp. processed food with lots of fat, salt, sugar, etc. junk mail advertising material that's sent to people who haven't asked for it just about almost or very nearly just cause a cause that it is morally right or just just now (1) at this moment just now (2) a moment ago, or a very short time ago Collocations/K Collocations beginning with K. Select a collocation for more details. keep a diary to own and write in a diary keep a promise to do what you promised to do keep a secret to not tell anyone a secret keep an appointment to meet somebody at the time you agreed to keep busy to have or find many things to do keep fit to stay in good physical condition by exercising keep going (1) to continue in the same direction keep going (2) to continue driving, riding, running, walking, etc. keep going (3) to continue doing whatever you're doing keep in touch to have regular contact with somebody by phone, mail, email, etc. keep quiet to make very little noise keep records to store detailed information, e.g. in business, legal cases, health care, education, etc. keep safe to prevent loss or damage keep sb waiting to make somebody wait keep sb/sth quiet to stop somebody or something from making too much noise keep score to keep a record of the score in a game or a match keep still to not move keep the change to not return the change after someone has paid for something keep your balance to remain steady on your feet and not stumble or fall key issue the most, or one of the most, important issues key role the most, or one of the most, important roles keynote address the main speech or lecture at a conference, seminar, meeting, etc. keynote speaker the main speaker at a conference, seminar, meeting, etc. kick a goal to score a goal by kicking a ball kill time to do something to fill in spare time know best to know what the best thing to do is know better to be sensible enough to know that it's better not to do something know the score to know the truth or the facts about something Collocations/L Collocations beginning with L. Select a collocation for more details. language skills skills related to using a language last long continue for a long time late night a night when you go to bed later than usual laugh out loud to laugh audibly, or laugh aloud so people can hear you law and order public order that police or military forces maintain lay the groundwork to do preliminary work in preparation for future work lead the field to be winning in a race lead the way (1) to go first to show others the way lead the way (2) to do something first or best lead the world to be the most successful or advanced in the world lead to believe to encourage somebody to believe something, or to hint that something might happen leading role the most important role in a film, play or TV show leave a message to leave information for someone you haven't been able to meet or talk to leave home to move out from the home you grew up in leave sb alone to stop annoying, bothering or criticizing somebody leave school to stop going to school leave sth alone to not touch, change or use something legal advice advice from a lawyer, a solicitor, or any other a legal expert let go (1) to allow somebody or something to go free let go (2) to stop holding on to something let sb know to tell or inform somebody level playing-field a situation that's fair for everyone, or in which everyone has the same opportunities level teaspoon a teaspoon filled to the level of the sides of the spoon lie ahead If something lies ahead, it's going to happen in the future. light a fire to start a fire liquid refreshments alcoholic or non-alcoholic drinks little bit slightly, or a little little brother | little sister younger brother, younger sister little known not known by many people live at home to live in the home you grew up in, or with the people who raised you live music music played on instruments in front of an audience living conditions physical conditions in which people live living things all things that are alive, incl. microorganisms, plants, animals, etc. long ago in the distant past long overdue should have been done, or should have happened, a long time ago long time a great amount of time long way a great distance look nice appear attractive, pleasant, enjoyable, delicious, etc. lose a game to be defeated in a game lose a job to be told you no longer have your job lose control to no longer be in control of something lose faith to no longer have faith in something you once believed in or trusted lose hope to no longer have hope lose interest to no longer be interested in something lose money to have less money after gambling, investing, starting a business, etc. lose weight to become lighter in weight lose your life to die because of an accident, war, illness, crime, etc. lose your temper to suddenly become angry love dearly to love very much, esp. of family members and friends loved one someone you love, esp. a family member or partner lucky escape If you had a lucky escape, you came close to being killed or badly injured

Collocations/M Collocations beginning with M. Select a collocation for more details. main course the largest course in a meal main road a wide road with lots of traffic main thing the most important thing make a bed to neatly arrange the sheets, blankets and pillows on a bed make a decision to decide what to do make a difference to cause a situation or condition to change make a fortune to make a huge amount of money make a fuss to create unnecessary excitement or concern about something make a living to earn money for the things you need in life make a mess to create an untidy or disorganized state or situation make a mistake to do something that's wrong or has bad results make a note (of) to write down something so that you don't forget it make a profit to make money from business or investments make a reservation to book or reserve a seat on a train, a table in a restaurant, a room in a hotel, etc. make amends to do something to show you're sorry for your bad behaviour in the past make an appointment to arrange a date and time to visit an office, clinic, dentist, doctor, etc. make an effort to put time and energy into doing something make an excuse to give a reason for doing something you shouldn't do, or for not doing something you should do make an offer to state a price you're willing to pay for something make arrangements to arrange all aspects of an event such as a wedding, funeral, meeting, conference, etc. make believe to pretend that something is real or true make changes to change something in specific ways make clear to make something easy to understand, or to express yourself clearly make contact to contact a person or an organisation make friends to form new friendships make love to have sex with someone, esp. someone you love make progress to get closer to a goal, or to improve in ability make room to create space by moving something make sb feel sth to cause somebody to feel a certain way make sense (1) If an idea, plan or action "makes sense", it's sensible and rational and not stupid or likely to fail. make sense (2) If a sentence or statement "makes sense", it can be understood by the people who read it or hear it. make sth easy to cause something to be less difficult make sure to check so that you're sure about something married couple two people who are married to one another mass market the great majority of people who buy goods in a society may (very) well could or might medical care help given to someone who's sick or injured medical history all the illnesses, injuries and treatments that someone has had in the past meet a need to provide what is needed meet a standard to reach a certain standard or level of quality, safety, etc. meet a target to reach the number or amount set as a target, e.g. in sales, profits, savings, website traffic, etc. meet opposition to receive a negative response or reaction meet with approval to receive a positive response or reaction mental illness illness causing thoughts or feelings that seriously disrupt a person's normal state of mind miles away far away, or a long way from a particular place miss a flight to arrive too late to board a flight on a plane miss a goal to try to score a goal, but fail miss an opportunity to have an opportunity to do something, but fail to do it missing in action If someone is "missing in action", they haven't been seen or contacted since being involved in military action. mixed feelings different emotions, or conflicting impulses, felt at the same time moral obligation moral requirement to do something because you know it's the right thing to do more or less (1) somewhat, fairly or almost more or less (2) approximately murder mystery a book, play or film about the investigation of a murder mysterious circumstances circumstances that aren't understood, or haven't been revealed or explained Collocations/N Collocations beginning with N. Select a collocation for more details. nasty habit a bad or unpleasant tendency nasty shock an unpleasant surprise native country the country in which you were born native speaker someone for whom a particular language is their first or native language natural causes If you die of natural causes, your life ends naturally and not because of an accident, murder or suicide. natural disaster a natural event that causes great harm, e.g. an earthquake, cyclone, tornado, etc. natural resources things from nature that we can use, e.g. oil, coal, rivers, lakes, trees, forests, etc. neat and tidy not messy need badly to need very much negative attitude an attitude that shows a critical viewpoint or a negative bias nervous wreck a person who's very stressed or nervous net profit profit remaining after taxes and costs have been deducted net result the final or overall effect or result of something net worth the total value of everything you own, including property and money, minus any debts you owe never knew to not know something new generation a new group of people or products that appeared around the same time new job a different job or a job you've found recently next time the time after this time next-door neighbours people living in a house next to yours nice time a pleasant or enjoyable experience non-stop flight flight that doesn't stop over on its way to a destination not necessarily (so) not always or not definitely nothing else no other thing or things nothing much nothing that's important nothing wrong with nothing that's causing a problem nowhere near (1) far away from nowhere near (2) not almost, or not similar to null and void having no legal effect or force Collocations/O Collocations beginning with O. Select a collocation for more details. obey an order to do what someone orders or commands you to do occupational hazard a danger that people doing a particular job face odd number any whole number that can't be exactly divided by two, such as 1, 3, 5, 7, etc. odd socks socks that don't match offer a job to tell someone they can have a job if they want it offer an explanation to explain why something was done offer condolences to convey sympathy to the family or friends of someone who's died offer your services to offer your time and skills to help a person or an organization office block a large building that houses many offices office hours hours when an office is open for business office job a job that's done at a desk in an office old age the time in life after middle age old friend a friend you've known for a very long time only just (1) a very short time ago only just (2) by a very small amount open an account to start an account with a bank, credit union, building society, supplier of goods, etc. open an investigation to begin an investigation into something open fire to start shooting with a weapon opening hours the time during which a club, park, library, shop, gallery, etc. is open openly gay If you're openly gay, you don't hide your homosexuality. opposition party a political party that's in opposition to the party or parties in power optional extras special features a product can have if you pay extra for them organic farming farming without using artificial chemicals overall effect the general effect, or overall result, of something owe an apology If you think you owe somebody an apology, you think you should say sorry to them. owe an explanation If you think someone owes you an explanation, you think they should explain why they did something that badly affected you. Collocations/P Collocations beginning with P. Select a collocation for more details. pack a suitcase to put clothes and other possessions into a suitcase pack of cards a full set of playing cards painful memory a memory that's upsetting or disturbing painful reminder If something's a painful reminder, it reminds you of something you find upsetting or disturbing. painfully shy extremely shy, or so shy that other people find it disturbing painfully slow extremely slow, or so slow that people become impatient painfully thin extremely thin, of a person or animal pair work a type of learning activity in which two students work together part company (1) to end a relationship or partnership part company (2) to stop travelling or spending time together and go different ways pass (the) time to do something to fill in time when you're bored or have nothing to do pass a law to bring in a new law by voting in parliament or by decree pass a test to not fail a test pay a bill to pay the amount stated on a bill pay a visit to visit someone or something pay attention to watch closely or listen carefully to someone or something pay increase an increase in the amount of money paid as a wage or salary peace and quiet no noise or disturbance perfectly normal not unusual at all personal belongings personal possessions that belong to you phone rings If your phone rings, it makes a noise to let you know someone's calling you. pick your nose to use a finger to remove dried mucus from inside your nose piece of advice a particular suggestion given as advice piece of equipment one particular item used as equipment piece of information a particular fact or item of information piece of music any musical work, including musical compositions, traditional works, improvised music, pop songs, etc. piece of paper one sheet or scrap of paper place an order put in an order to buy something play a part perform a particular role, or be involved in a particular way play music to make music with an instrument, or to broadcast recorded music point of view a particular perspective or way of seeing things political prisoner someone who's imprisoned because of their political beliefs poor eyesight not very good eyesight poor health not very good health popular belief an idea that most people believe is true pose a risk to create risk of danger or harm pose a threat create the threat of danger or harm press a key to put a finger on a key on a keyboard and press down pretty good quite good or fairly good pretty well fairly well or reasonably well private life aspects of someone's life that aren't related to work or other public roles public opinion the opinions of the majority of people in a society pull a muscle to injure a muscle by lifting something heavy or moving too quickly push a button to press a button on a machine or an appliance put on weight to become heavier or fatter, of a person or an animal put out a cigarette to stop a cigarette from burning put out a fire to stop a fire from burning put up prices to increase prices put up wages to increase wages put up your hand to raise your arm if you want to say something, ask or answer a question, show you're present, etc. Collocations/Q Collocations beginning with Q. Select a collocation for more details. quality of life the level of personal satisfaction, happiness and health in somebody's life quick fix a solution to a problem that can be quickly or cheaply implemented, but may not be a good or long-lasting solution quick reply a prompt or almost immediate reply to a letter or email quiet life a simple and peaceful way of living quiet night a night when you stay at home instead of going out quietly confident feeling confident, but not saying much about it quit a job to tell an employer you no longer want your job quit drinking to stop drinking alcohol quit smoking to stop smoking cigarettes quite a lot quite often, or quite a large amount quite agree agree completely quite enough as much as necessary quite good fairly good quite often fairly often quite right completely correct quite sure completely sure Collocations/R Collocations beginning with R. Select a collocation for more details. racial discrimination unfair treatment of someone because of their race radical reform major and fundamental reform rain hard rain heavily, as during a storm or a downpour rainy day a day during which it rains quite a lot raise a family to raise one or more children in a family setting raise doubts to express doubts or concerns about something raise hopes to make somebody feel more hopeful raise money to collect money for a special purpose raise questions to bring issues or questions to somebody's attention raise taxes to increase the rate of taxation raise your voice to show anger by speaking louder than usual rapid growth fast growth, or growth in a short period of time rate of return the percentage of an original investment that is returned as profit rave review a very good review of a book, movie, play, concert, etc. reach a verdict to decide if the accused is guilty or not reach an agreement to finally agree after discussing or negotiating something read aloud to say words out loud as you read them readily available easy to obtain or easy to find real life life as it's really experienced, or life in the real world real live present in reality, and not in a film, on TV, etc. real wages the true value of wages, in terms of what you can buy with the money reasonable explanation an explanation that most people can accept or believe reasonably happy fairly pleased or reasonably satisfied reasonably priced for sale or rent at a fair price reasonably well fairly well or satisfactorily recommend highly to strongly recommend someone or something regain control to get control of something again after losing control repair damage to fix the damage to something resort to violence to use violence when other methods have failed restore confidence to bring back confidence, trust or belief in something restore order to bring back order after a period of revolt or disorder retain control to maintain control of, or keep control over, something return a call to call someone back after not answering their call return address a sender's address, for replying to or returning a letter or parcel return fire to fire back when someone's firing a weapon at you return flight the flight back from where your first flight took you return home to come back home, or to go back home return ticket a ticket for travelling to a place, and then back again rhetorical question a question that's asked to make a point, not get an answer right away immediately, or without delay right now (1) at this moment right now (2) immediately, or without delay road safety safety on roads for drivers, passengers and pedestrians room for improvement the possibility or need for something to improve root cause the main or fundamental cause of something root crop a plant with roots or other underground parts that can be eaten, like carrots, potatoes, ginger, etc. rough draft an unedited or unpolished version of an essay, book, speech, screenplay, etc. rough estimate an approximate estimate rough idea a vague or approximate idea, concept, memory, etc. round number any whole number that ends in 0, such as 10, 150, and 1250 run a business to be in charge of a business run the risk of to do something risky, or that could have a bad result running late behind schedule running low almost used up or almost exhausted, esp. of fuel, supplies, foods, drinks, etc. runny nose If you've got a runny nose, liquid mucus is running from your nose. Collocations/S Collocations beginning with S. Select a collocation for more details. safe and sound not harmed, hurt or damaged in any way safe distance far enough away from danger to be safe safety hazard something that isn't safe or creates danger safety net government programs that help people in trouble, esp. the poor, sick, unemployed, old, homeless, etc. safety record a record showing how effective safety measures have been sales figures figures showing the number of products sold sales force all the people employed to sell a company's products satisfy a need to give or provide what somebody needs satisfy a requirement to have what a requirement states or specifies satisfy demand to sell products in the quantities demanded by the market save lives to prevent deaths, or stop people from dying save money (1) to keep money for the future save money (2) to pay less money save time to use less time say goodbye to say a parting word as you leave, or as somebody else leaves say sorry to apologize to someone scare tactic a tactic that uses fear to make people behave a certain way score a goal to get a goal in sport security forces military and police forces see reason to see that your view is unreasonable or wrong, and reconsider see what sb means to understand somebody's viewpoint or observation sense of direction a natural ability to know which direction you're going in sense of humour an ability to see and express humour, or the funny side of things serious accident an accident in which someone is badly injured or killed serious illness a very harmful or dangerous illness serious injury a very bad injury serious mistake a very bad mistake serious relationship a romantic relationship that you take seriously seriously damage (1) badly damage (of material objects) seriously damage (2) badly affect (of non-material or abstract things) seriously ill very sick seriously injured badly hurt or injured seriously wounded badly hurt by a weapon serve a purpose to be useful, esp. in achieving an aim or performing a function serve interests to benefit or support the interests of someone or something set a date to decide the date on which something in the future will happen set a goal to decide what it is you'll try to achieve set a record to achieve a new record in sport, sales, profits, losses, etc. set a standard to set or establish a certain level of quality set a table to put forks, knives, spoons, plates, place mats, etc. onto a table before a meal is served set an alarm to set the time at which the alarm in a phone or alarm clock will ring set fire to | set on fire to make something start burning set free to let someone or something go free set menu a complete meal with several courses for a fixed price short memory If you have a short memory, you can forget things soon after they've happened. social justice fair distribution of wealth, opportunities and privileges in society social life the part of life involving friends and social activities solve a crime to find out who committed a crime solve a problem to find the solution to a problem spare time time when you're free to do whatever you want to do speedy recovery a quicker recovery from illness or injury than usual spend time to do something or be somewhere for a certain time spend your life to use the time you have in life stand trial to be judged for a crime in a court of law stay awake to remain awake, or not go to sleep stay put to stay in the same place or situation stay tuned keep watching a television broadcast or keep listening to a radio broadcast steady job a job that offers constant work and a reliable income steady relationship a serious and stable romantic relationship steady stream constant sequence, or many things one after another stiff competition strong competition from rivals or opponents still (be) alive not yet dead straight after immediately after something happens or finishes straight ahead directly in front straight answer an honest and direct answer to a question straight away immediately strictly speaking according to a strict definition of a meaning or a regulation strike a balance (btw) to find a balanced position that's reasonable and fair for all or both sides strongly support to support or believe in somebody or something very much sure sign a sign or evidence that something is happening or definitely true Collocations/T Collocations beginning with T. Select a collocation for more details. take (sb's) temperature to measure somebody's body temperature take (sb) to court to begin a legal case against someone take a break to stop doing something for a short time, e.g. to eat, rest, go to the toilet, etc. take a call to answer or accept an incoming telephone call take a look to examine, inspect or look at something take a message to write down or memorize a message for somebody take a risk to do something you know is dangerous take a seat to sit down on a chair, bench, sofa, etc. take a step (1) to put one foot in front of the other, as when walking take a step (2) to do something that helps to achieve a goal take a test to sit an examination or do a test take action to do something to achieve a goal or solve a problem take advice to do what somebody advises you to do take ages to take a long time take care be careful take care of to care for or look after somebody or something take charge to take control or assume responsibility take drugs to use mind-altering or mood-altering drugs take exercise to exercise your body for health or fitness take hostage to capture and threaten somebody in order to get something take long to take a long time to do or finish take medicine to swallow a tablet or syrup to cure an illness take notes to write notes in a lecture or when reading take notice to pay attention to something take part to be involved, or to participate in something take place to happen or occur take pride in to be proud of your talent, skills, work, achievements, etc. take prisoner to capture and imprison somebody, esp. in a war or battle take sb's place to replace somebody, or to do something instead of somebody else take seriously to think that somebody or something is important or deserves your full attention take time to take a long time take turns If people take turns, they do something one after the other, or alternately. take up space to occupy or fill up space take your time to take as long as you like, without rushing tax cut a reduction in the rate of taxation tell a lie to say something you know isn't true tell a story to share a story by reading it, recalling it, or making it up tell sb the time to tell somebody what time it is tell the difference to notice differences and be able to distinguish between similar things tell the time to be able to look at a clock, a sundial, stars, etc. and know what time it is tell the truth to say what's true or what really happened tight budget a budget that severely limits the amount of money that can be spent tight grip a firm hold tight schedule a schedule with very little time between appointments, meetings, etc. time off time away from work top floor the highest level or storey in a building top priority the most important of several issues, goals, tasks, etc. top speed the fastest speed that something can travel at travel light to travel without much luggage try hard to put a lot of effort into doing something turn a corner to go around a corner turn around to turn your body or head so that you're facing the opposite way Collocations/U Collocations beginning with U. Select a collocation for more details. ulterior motive the hidden reason or purpose behind an action ultimate goal final objective or goal uncertain future a future that's likely to be worse than the present unconditional love love that isn't based on conditions or requirements undergo surgery to have a surgical procedure or operation undergo treatment to have treatment for a medical condition unemployment benefit a regular payment from the government to help someone who can't find a job unfair advantage an advantage that isn't fair or hasn't been earned unfair dismissal unjust or unfair firing of a worker unrequited love love you feel for someone who doesn't love you unusually wealthy much wealthier than other people in the same position or with the same job upper deck deck of a ship that's above lower decks and open to the sky upper echelons the highest ranks in a society or organization upper limit the highest level or amount allowed upset sb's stomach If something upsets your stomach, it causes a stomach problem that makes you feel sick. upset stomach If you've got an upset stomach, you feel sick in the stomach. urban development the building or development of towns and cities urban renewal the renewal of poor parts of a city by improving services and attracting investment urban sprawl the poorly-regulated spread of urban development into the countryside near a city use sb's phone to make a call on somebody else's phone used car a car that's already been owned by someone utterly ridiculous completely ridiculous or unreasonable Collocations/V Collocations beginning with V. Select a collocation for more details. vague idea an approximate or imprecise idea vague memory unclear or incomplete memory valid point a point that most people would find reasonable and logical valid reason a reason that most people would find acceptable or believable valuable contribution an important contribution to something's development or success valuable information important or useful information valuable lesson If an experience becomes a valuable lesson, it teaches you something important. vary widely to vary a lot, or include very different types, amounts, degrees, etc. vast majority great majority, or the most by far victory lap a lap around a field or track to celebrate a victory victory parade a parade held to celebrate a victory, esp. in sports, war, politics, etc. violent crime a crime that causes injury or death violent movie a movie with many violent scenes visiting hours hours of the day when you can visit a hospital, prison, museum, zoo, government office, etc. vital organs organs that are essential for life, incl. the brain, heart, kidneys, liver and lungs vital role a very important role vocal critic a person who often criticizes something or someone in public vocal minority a group that voices an opinion that the majority of people don't agree with vocal music music that includes parts for one or more singers, with or without instruments vocal organs organs used when speaking or making sounds vote against to not support someone or something with your vote vote for to give someone or something your vote Collocations/W Collocations beginning with W. Select a collocation for more details. wage increase an increase in the amount of money a wage-earner is paid wage war to begin a struggle or campaign to fight something wait your turn to wait until your turn comes warm welcome a friendly or positive reception warning sign a sign or indication that something's wrong waste an opportunity to not make use of an opportunity or chance waste money to spend money on something you don't really need or want waste of time something that's not worth spending time on waste time to spend time doing something that brings no results waste water used water that's discharged from factories, farms, homes, etc. watch your weight to be careful about what you eat so you don't put on weight wave goodbye to wave your hand when leaving, or when someone else is leaving way ahead far ahead, or a long way in front weak point part of something that's easy to attack or criticize wear and tear damage caused by normal use over time welcome change a pleasant or long-awaited change well after a long time after well ahead a long way ahead well aware of fully or completely aware or informed well before a long time before well behind a long way behind well worth definitely worth doing, getting, seeing, etc. whole thing the entire thing, or all of something wide awake completely awake or fully alert wide open fully open, of a door, window, eyes, mouth, etc. wide range (1) a large number of similar products, services, styles, options, etc. wide range (2) many different types, esp. of people, opinions, choices, results, etc. widely used used by many people or in many places wild animal an animal that's living free in its natural habitat win a game to beat your opponent in a game win a war to defeat the enemy in a war win an award to receive an award win an election to be awarded victory by those running an election work hard to put a lot of effort into what you're doing work well operate or function properly, efficiently, smoothly, etc. working conditions environment and conditions in which you work worth a fortune worth a lot of money wrong number an incorrect telephone number wrong way (1) wrong direction wrong way (2) incorrect method, technique, strategy, etc. Collocations/XYZ Collocations beginning with X-Z. Select a collocation for more details. x-ray vision the ability to see into or through objects made of non-transparent materials yawning gap a very wide gap yet again one more time, after many other times yield results to produce or provide results young child a person who's very young, but not a baby young couple two young people in a romantic relationship young person a person who's still young, but no longer a child youthful enthusiasm great enthusiasm that a young person feels zero tolerance (1) legal policy that allows politicians to set mandatory punishments that judges must apply zero tolerance (2) absolutely no tolerance for something zero visibility absolutely no visibility due to darkness, poor weather, etc.

A abandon: 1. a lack of control or restraint 2. loss of inhibitions 3. exuberance 4. surrender to one's natural impulses abandonment: 1. leaving someone, such as a child or a spouse, voluntarily 2. the act of giving something up 3. the act of letting something or someone go abate: reduce in amount, degree, or intensity; lessen abbreviate: make (a word, phrase, or text) shorter abbreviation: 1. a shortened form of a name, phrase or word 2. the act of shortening something aberrant: different from the right, normal, usual course, expected course or an accepted standard aberration: a departure from what is right, true, correct, etc., typically an unwelcome one abeyance: 1. a temporary stoppage or delay of activity 2. suspension abhor: regard with extreme dislike and hatred abide: 1. to accept 2. to put up with; to tolerate 3. to conform ability: 1. the capacity to do something 2. a skill or talent in a specific area abjure: 1. to officially renounce 2. to formally and publicly announce that one no longer believes in something abnormal: 1. strange 2. not usual or typical 3. not what is considered to be normal aboard: 1. on a boat or any sort of vehicle, such as a train or plane 2. into a group; as a participant abolish: 1. to get rid of in an official way 2. to put an end to 3. to completely destroy abolition: 1. the act of getting rid of something 2. the act of stopping or cancelling something abortion: 1. the medical termination of a pregnancy 2. the failure or premature abandonment of a plan or an undertaking abortive: 1. failed 2. unfinished and therefore unsuccessful 3. imperfect abridge: 1. to make something shorter while keeping the same meaning 2. to condense 3. to reduce abrogate: 1. to officially put an end to something, especially a law or another type of formal agreement abrupt: 1. brusque or curt in behavior or speech 2. unexpected or sudden, most often in an unpleasant or shocking way 3. steep absence: 1. the state or condition of someone or something not being present or not existing 2. a failure to appear absent: 1. not present in a certain time or location 2. non-existent 3. missing absolute: 1. complete, definite or perfect 2. not limited in any way 3. unadulterated absolutely: 1. completely 2. definitely 3. without exception absorb: 1. to incorporate something 2. to soak up or suck up something 3. to gradually take something in absorption: 1. the act or process of taking in or absorbing any substance 2. the state of being mentally engrossed in something; total concentration abstain: deliberately choose not to do or have something that is enjoyable but that may not be healthy, safe, or morally right 2. refrain from voting abstract: 1. not concrete; not related to a physical object or real event 2. expressing or showing feelings instead of real objects or people 3. difficult to understand because of its complexity 4. theoretical absurd: 1. silly or ridiculous, especially in a laughable way 2. illogical or totally untrue 3. difficult or impossible to believe absurdity: 1. the state or quality of being totally ridiculous or absurd 2. nonsense abundance: 1. an extremely large quantity of something 2. a quantity that is considered to be more than enough abundant: 1. great in number 2. available in a large number 3. more than enough; plenty abuse: 1. misuse of something 2. unfair or hurtful treatment of a person or an animal 3. improper use academic: 1. related to school or scholarly subjects 2. theoretical; not practical 3. scholarly; good at studying academy: 1. a professional organization that is created to regulate or spur interest and development in a specific field 2. a school that provides special training in a particular field accede: 1. to formally take on official duties 2. to agree; to give consent 3. to do what someone else says accelerate: 1. to speed up 2. to go faster 3. to make something happen or to happen at a quicker rate than normal acceleration: 1. an increase in speed or rate 2. the ability of something to go faster access: 1. a way of entering or exiting a place 2. the right or permission to use, approach, or enter something or somewhere 3. the act of approaching accessible: 1. obtainable 2. easy to enter, speak with, or approach 3. easily influenced accessory: 1. an object that is added to another in order to make it more useful or attractive 2. a person that helps another person commit a crime, but who does not actually take part in the crime accident: 1. an unforeseen event that causes harm, damage, injury or even death 2. a sudden and unplanned event accidental: 1. unexpected 2. not predicted 3. happening by chance accidentally: 1. by chance 2. unexpectedly 3. by mistake accommodate: 1. to do a favor or oblige someone 2. to supply 3. to provide space for people to stay or to be 4. to adapt or to make suitable accommodation: 1. lodgings used for travelers 2. a place to stay or live accompaniment: 1. something that accompanies something or someone else 2. music that accompanies a singer or the main tune accompany: 1. to go along with 2. to be associated with 3. to go somewhere with someone accomplish: 1. to carry something out; to finish something 2. to be successful in doing something 3. to complete or fulfill accomplishment: 1. fulfillment, success or achievement 2. something that was done successfully accord: concurrence of opinions or wills account: 1. an explanation or description of a specific event or situation 2. a narrative 3. the reasons behind a specific event or action accountant: 1. a person who keeps and prepares financial reports for businesses and individuals accounting: 1. the practice or process of recording and keeping financial records of individuals or corporations accrue: 1. to accumulate over a long period of time 2. to increase 3. to grow in a slow way accumulate: 1. to collect or gather 2. to amass 3. to increase in quantity or amount accumulation: 1. the act of growing or increasing in amount over an extended period of time 2. agglomeration accurate: 1. meticulous or giving careful consideration to the details 2. exact 3. free from errors and mistakes achieve: 1. to accomplish 2. to reach something through hard work 3. to succeed acknowledge: 1. to recognize or admit that something is true 2. to tell someone you have received something 3. to thank someone for something they have done 4. to show someone that you have recognized them by making a gesture acquiesce: 1. to agree to something reticently but without protesting acquire: 1. to obtain 2. to purchase 3. to develop or learn a habit or skill 4. to pinpoint and hold a target or something else through the use of radar or another tracking device acquisition: 1. the act of getting something or gaining possession of a skill or a good 2. something that one gets or gains possession of acrid: 1. a strong, bitter or stinging smell which often creates an unpleasant smell in one's throat 2. a bitter or sharp taste acrimony: sharpness, harshness, or bitterness of nature, temper, manner, or speech acuity: 1. acuteness or sharpness, especially of thought, vision or perception acumen: the ability to think clearly, make good judgments and take quick decision in a particular subject, such as business or politics adamant: 1. refusing to be persuaded, or unwilling to change an opinion or decision in spite of pleas, appeals, or reason; stubbornly unyielding 2. too hard to cut, break, or pierce adapt: 1. to make changes in order to fit a specific situation or purpose 2. to modify 3. to alter something adaptation: 1. the act of modifying something so that it better fits one's needs 2. change; adjustment adept: highly skilled or proficient at doing something; expert adequate: 1. sufficient to fit the requirements or needs 2. good enough, but not excessively good 3. satisfactory adjacent: 1. near 2. close to 3. neighboring 4. touching adjust: 1. to make changes to 2. to settle or adapt to a situation adjustment: 1. a change or modification that makes something more suitable or accurate for the person or situation 2. an adaptation administrate: 1. to direct or manage 2. to control 3. to distribute or give out administration: 1. a person or group that governs or manages a particular organization 2. the act of controlling a particular organization, group or plan adroit: very clever or skillful in a physical or mental way adult: 1. a person or animal that is fully developed or fully grown 2. a mature person or animal adversity: a difficult, unlucky, or unpleasant situation, condition, or event; misfortune; tragedy advocate: 1. publicly speak, write, plead, recommend, support or argue for a cause, particular policy or way of doing things 2. a person who publicly speaks, writes, pleads, recommends, supports or argues for a cause, particular policy or way of doing things aesthetic: 1. relating to beauty or the study or appreciation of beauty or good taste 2. nice to look at affect: 1. to impact someone emotionally or mentally 2. to produce a change in affected: 1. behaving in an artificial way to impress people 2. emotionally stirred or moved 3. impaired, harmed, or attacked, as by climate or disease 4. artificial and not sincere aggregate: 1. to collect or bring together 2. to add amounts together aid: 1. help; assistance 2. a person who helps someone or something 3. a helpful device alacrity: a cheerful readiness, promptness, or willingness to do something albeit: 1. although 2. even if 3. notwithstanding allay: 1. to calm or to lessen negative feelings or pain 2. to pacify 3. to alleviate or relieve alleviate: 1. to make something more bearable or relieve problems or pain 2. to make something less severe or easier allocate: divide and give out (something) for a particular purpose alter: 1. to change or modify 2. to make something different 3. to castrate or spay an animal alternative: 1. not traditional or usual 2. being a choice; offering a choice 3. existing outside traditional society altruistic: unselfishly concerned for or devoted to the welfare of others amalgamate: mix, merge, combine or unite to form one thing ambiguity: 1. the state of being unclear, inexact and open to more than one possible interpretation 2. doubtfulness ambiguous: 1. not expressed or understood clearly 2. open to or having several possible meanings or interpretations amend: 1. to make changes to 2. to improve 3. to alter 4. to remove errors from amendment: 1. a change that is made to something, such as a law, an agreement or any other document 2. a minor change or addition to something amiable: pleasant and friendly; good-natured and likable amicable: characterized by or exhibiting friendliness or goodwill, often despite a difficult situation amorphous: 1. without a defined shape or form 2. unorganized 3. missing a clear structure analogous: 1. similar to 2. alike or related in a way that allows analogies to be drawn analogy: 1. a comparison designed to show that two or more things are similar 2. partial resemblance 3. comparability analyse: 1. to examine something critically 2. to separate something into its parts in order to examine it or better understand it 3. to psychoanalyze analysis: 1. the study or examination of something in an attempt to define it or understand it 2. investigation 3. the act of breaking a subject down into parts to study it anarchy: 1. a lack of government or social control of any sort 2. lawlessness and confusion due to an absence of control or structure anathema: 1. a malediction or a curse 2. something or someone that is considered to be cursed 3. someone or something that is greatly disliked anecdote: a short, often funny story, especially about something some happening, usually personal or biographical animosity: 1. clear negativity or hatred of someone or something 2. strong opposition 3. open hostility annex: 1. to take control or possession over a piece of land without permission and often by the use of force 2. to add or attach 3. annual: 1. occurring each year 2. payable on a yearly basis or calculated over a year 3. yearly anonymous: 1. with no name known or acknowledged 2. made or done by someone unknown 3. having no unusual or interesting features antagonism: 1. unfriendliness or opposition 2. a strong feeling of dislike or hatred towards someone antagonist: a person who opposes to, struggles against, or competes with someone or something, especially in combat; adversary; opponent anthology: 1. a book that contains many different selections, often from various authors 2. a collection of music or different works of art anthropology: the study of human races, origins, societies, beliefs, cultures, and its physical development anticipate: 1. to predict or foresee 2. to look forward to something 3. to prepare for something or deal with something before it happens apparent: 1. clear and able to be seen 2. obvious; evident 3. easily understood appease: 1. to calm a situation 2. to pacify a situation by giving one's enemies what they demand 3. to soothe append: 1. to attach something; to affix 2. to add something to a written work such as a letter or a book appendix: 1. additional material that is found at the end of a book, an essay or another written piece 2. added information appreciate: 1. to become more valuable or increase in worth 2. to be grateful or thankful for 3. to understand the true meaning of a situation appreciation: 1. an increase in value 2. the act of recognizing something's quality, worth, validity, merit, etc. 3. an expression of thanks or gratitude 4. judgment approach: to move nearer appropriate: 1. to take possession or control of something 2. to steal 3. to set aside or to devote to a specific purpose approximate: 1. to come close to something 2. to be similar to something 3. to get near apt: 1. exactly suitable; appropriate 2. likely to do something; having a tendency to do something 3. quick to learn or understand arbitrary: 1. determined in a random way 2. based on preference rather than logic arbitrate: officially try to settle a disagreement between opposing or contending parties or sides after hearing the opinions and ideas of both arcane: known or understood by only a few; secret or mysterious archaic: 1. antiquated 2. belonging to a time in the past 3. old-fashioned archives: 1. a group of documents with some sort of historical or informational value 2. the place where these documents are kept area: 1. a geographical region 2. part of a surface or space 3. a subject or field of study arid: 1. very dry, especially having insufficient rainfall to support trees or plants 2. lacking in interest, excitement, or meaning articulate: 1. capable of expressing oneself in a clear and coherent manner 2. clear and well formulated language aspect: 1. a part or quality of something 2. one part of a situation 3. exposure; the way in which a structure is facing aspire: long, aim, or seek ambitiously to have or achieve something, especially in your career; desire strongly assail: physically attack or severely criticize (someone or something) in a violent or angry way assemble: 1. to put something together by joining its parts 2. to bring people together into one single group assembly: 1. a gathering of people that takes place because the people share a common goal or interest; a meeting 2. a gathering of teachers and students where information is shared assess: 1. to estimate or determine the value of something; to appraise 2. to evaluate assessment: 1. the act of evaluating and judging something 2. one's judgments or observations about a particular subject assiduous: showing hard work, great care, and attention to detail; diligent assign: 1. to give or allocate 2. to appoint 3. to designate 4. to attribute assist: 1. to support or help; to aid assistance: 1. help or support 2. the act of helping or supporting someone assume: 1. to believe that something is true without proof 2. to take on a role or responsibility 3. to adopt an idea assurance: 1. a feeling of confidence in oneself or something else 2. a promise designed to give confidence assure: 1. to assure someone that something is true, in hopes of getting rid of doubts 2. to confidently promise; to pledge 3. to guarantee 4. to make secure or safe astute: 1. crafty 2. possessing the ability to correctly judge situations and use one's observations to take advantage of the situation 3. shrewd asylum: 1. protection, safety, or the right to stay, especially that given by a government to people who has escaped from war or political trouble in their own country 2. an institution for the care of the mentally ill, or of the aged, the poor, etc. attach: 1. to fasten or join two or more objects 2. to include 3. to add a file to an e-mail attached: 1. joined or fastened together somehow 2. connected 3. feeling love or attraction for someone attain: 1. to succeed at something 2. to achieve 3. to reach or arrive at attitude: 1. a feeling or an opinion; a mental position 2. physical posture 3. a way of acting, thinking or feeling attribute: 1. a trait or quality 2. a characteristic augment: 1. to increase something in size, quantity or value 2. to enlarge 3. to enhance August: impressive; majestic; inspiring awe or admiration author: 1. the creator of something 2. the person who writes a document 3. the person responsible for an action authority: 1. power; the ability and right to control 2. the person or group that is in charge of a person, group or region 3. an expert on a specific subject 4. jurisdiction 5. official permission automate: 1. to mechanize a process, replacing people with machines 2. to operate by automation available: 1. free and ready to be used; not busy 2. accessible 3. at someone's disposal avarice: extreme greed to get or keep money or possessions; cupidity aver: 1. say (something) in a very strong and determined way 2. declare in a positive or confident manner aware: 1. cognizant; knowing 2. informed about something 3. conscious of something B bard: 1. a poet 2. a poet that composes or recites lyric poetry barrage: 1. a concentrated artillery bombardment to protect one's own advancing or retreating or to stop the advance of enemy troops 2. an artificial barrier across a river or estuary to increase the depth of the water, prevent flooding, facilitate irrigation, etc befuddle: 1. to completely confuse someone 2. to perplex behalf: 1. in the interest of 2. on part of 3. supporting 4. representing beleaguer: 1. to harass or create trouble for 2. to besiege or surround a place, person or group with troops belittle: 1. to disparage or put down 2. to consider something to be less important or make it seem less important 3. to scorn or disparage belligerent: inclined or eager to fight or argue; hostile and aggressive benefit: 1. an advantage 2. a gift or payment from an employer to an employee 3. a payment from an insurance company or social welfare program 4. something intended to help 5. an event designed to raise money for someone or for a cause benevolent: kind, generous, and helpful; charitable benign: 1. not harmful 2. displaying kindness or gentleness 3. beneficial bias: supporting or opposing a particular person or thing in an unfair way, especially in a way considered to be unfair bigot: 1. a person who is intolerant of views other than his or her own 2. a person with a closed-mind blatant: 1. obvious, easily detectable, or blunt 2. noisy in a vulgar way 3. obtrusive bond: 1. the link or connection between people or things 2. a written promise 3. a force that unites or pushes people together 4. a certificate of debt issued by a government or company, promising to pay borrowed money back over a specified period of time bourgeois: 1. middle class and acting in a way that is consistent with what is expected of the middle class 2. materialistic 3. typical, conventional brazen: 1. bold and shameless 2. having a loud, usually harsh, resonant sound breach: 1. an act of breaking or failing to follow a law, rule, trust, faith, promise, agreement, or code of conduct 2. a hole, opening or space in a wall, fence, barrier, or line of defense, especially during a military attack brief: 1. concise 2. short in duration 3. curt 4. scanty brusque: a very direct, brief, and unfriendly way in speech or manner buffet: 1. a table that has food on it, from which diners are expected to choose their own food 2. a meal when diners are expected to choose their own food from a variety of selections 3. a blow or a strike, usually from a hand bulk: 1. the size or mass of something 2. the largest portion or part of something 3. great in quantity bulwark: 1. something or someone which protects one from negative, dangerous or unpleasant things or gives support and encouragement in bad situations 2. a wall built for defense buoyant: 1. able to float 2. cheerful and optimistic bureaucracy: 1. a large government or administration that is divided into various departments, in which the officials must follow a set of inflexible rules 2. a complicated management system which requires compliance with an annoying set of rules or regulations burgeon: 1. grow, increase, expand or develop quickly 2. begin to grow or blossom (as buds or branches) C cajole: persuade by flattery or promises; wheedle; coax callous: unkind, cruel, and without sympathy or feeling about the problems or suffering of other people candid: 1. direct or honest, even in situations when the truth is considered to be uncomfortable or unpleasant; frank; straightforward 2. impartial or unbiased 3. unrehearsed or informal candor: 1. the quality or state of being honest or frank, especially when the truth is painful or difficult 2. fairness; impartiality capable: 1. able to do something 2. quite good at a certain task; skilled capacity: 1. the ability to do something 2. the maximum number of things that a place or object can hold capricious: suddenly and unexpectedly changing mood or behavior without any good reason; impulsive and unpredictable catalyst: 1. (Chemistry) a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction 2. somebody, something or an event that quickly causes change or action category: 1. a group of things organized due to the fact that they share a common trait 2. a group or class 3. a division caustic: 1. capable of burning, corroding, destroying, or eating away by chemical action 2. severely critical or sarcastic, often in a funny or clever way cease: 1. to stop doing something; to quit 2. to discontinue 3. to come to an end censure: strong criticism or disapproval of (someone or something), especially in a formal statement chagrin: a feeling of being very annoyed, disappointed, or embarrassed because of failure, disappointment, or humiliation challenge: 1. to question or express objection to 2. to test someone 3. to invite someone to take part in a debate or competition; to dare channel: 1. a route through which water flows or can flow 2. a television or radio station 3. a course of direction through which actions or ideas pass chapter: 1. a section of a book or a written work 2. a branch of a society or group 3. a stage in a person's life chart: 1. a drawing or illustration which displays information in an easy to understand way; a graph 2. a detailed map used for navigation of the sea or air chide: 1. express mild disapproval of (someone) 2. scold mildly so as to correct or improve; reprimand circumscribe: 1. draw a line around; encircle 2. restrict something such as power, rights, or opportunities within limits circumspect: 1. prudent or careful about taking risks 2. cautious and wary about the outcome of an action circumstance: 1. the conditions surrounding an event 2. a factor which influences something circumvent: 1. surround or circle around (an enemy, for example); enclose or entrap 2. avoid (defeat, failure, unpleasantness, etc.), especially cleverly or illegally 3. go around or bypass cite: 1. to use information or exact words from another source; to quote 2. to use as an example civil: 1. not related to the church or military, but rather the ordinary people of a country 2. secular 3. polite or courteous clandestine: kept or done secretly and often illegal clarify: 1. to make something clearer or easier to understand 2. to remove ambiguity clarity: 1. clearness of expression or thought 2. the ability to be understood 3. the ability to think in a clear way classic: 1. typical; traditional; famous 2. extraordinarily good 3. timeless; considered to be good or exceptional over a long period of time classical: 1. relating to ancient cultures 2. respecting tradition or the original way of doing things 3. traditional clause: 1. a provision or stipulation in a contract or another formal document 2. a phrase containing a subject and a verb that is part of a larger sentence clientele: 1. the specific group of customers which patronize a certain establishment or service provider; customer base coalesce: 1. grow together or into one body 2. unite or merge into a single body, group, or mass code: 1. a rule or law which governs an organization or a political region 2. a set of words or images which are used to communicate a message in a secret way or in an abbreviated form coerce: 1. to convince someone to do something by threatening them or using force 2. to use force to get something coercion: 1. persuasion through threats or force 2. using force to convince someone to do something coherence: 1. a logical ordering of things 2. consistency 3. the state of being logical coherent: 1. consistent or logical 2. understandable 3. capable of explaining one's thoughts or ideas in a way that is easily understood 4. unified; sticking together coincide: 1. to happen at the same time 2. to be present at the same time and place 3. to agree with or be in agreement collaborate: 1. work together, especially in a joint intellectual effort 2. cooperate with an enemy who has invaded your country during a war collapse: 1. to cave in due to pressure or lack of support 2. to fall down 3. to break down 4. to fold into a smaller or more compact shape, allowing something to be more easily stored colleague: 1. a coworker 2. someone you work with in the same profession or organization colloquial: 1. not formal 2. familiar and conversational 3. informal commence: 1. to start; to begin 2. to commence 3. to originate comment: 1. to say something 2. to make a remark 3. to explain something through a verbal or written remark commission: 1. a fee or payment for goods or services rendered 2. a request to create a specific work for someone 3. a group which studies a certain issue commit: to do something commitment: 1. one's promise or willingness to do something 2. an obligation, engagement, pledge or understanding commodity: 1. a product or good that can be bought and sold 2. something useful or of value communicate: 1. to transmit something, such as energy or an illness 2. to transmit information to others through written, verbal or non verbal words or signals communication: 1. the act of transmitting information from one person to another 2. the message that is transmitted community: 1. a group of people living in the same area or region 2. a group of people who share common interests 3. the greater public compatible: 1. able to exist in harmony 2. well-suited 3. capable of being mixed compensate: 1. to pay someone for something that has been lost, damaged, or taken away 2. to make up for something negative 3. to pay someone for their services compensation: 1. a reward or a payment that is given in exchange for some sort of negative incident compile: 1. to gather things together 2. to put things together in a logical or orderly form complacency: a feeling of contentment or self-satisfaction with your own abilities or situation that prevents you from trying harder, often while unaware of some potential danger, defect, or the like complement: 1. to go well with something 2. to make perfect; to complete complex: 1. complicated and not easy to understand 2. involving or made from many different parts component: 1. one specific part of something 2. an ingredient or element compound: 1. to increase 2. to combine 3. to make something worse 4. to pay interest comprehensive: 1. all-encompassing 2. thorough 3. extensive 4. dealing with most or all aspects of a certain issue comprise: 1. to be made up of 2. to be composed of 3. to include; to contain compromise: 1. a settlement of differences by mutual concessions 2. reduce the quality, value, or degree of something 3. endanger the interests or reputation of compute: 1. to calculate 2. to determine by using a calculator or computer conceive: 1. to draw up or think up a plan 2. to get pregnant 3. to invent something concentrate: 1. to focus on something 2. to strengthen something 3. to bring things or people together in a common location concept: 1. an idea or a notion 2. a plan 3. an experimental model for a future product concern: A matter of interest or importance concise: 1. expressed in few words 2. clear and succinct 3. brief yet clear conclude: 1. to finish 2. to terminate or cause something to come to an end 3. to deduce or to infer based on what one has seen or heard concomitant: 1. something that is connected to something else, often occurring at the same time 2. something associated with another thing concur: agree with someone or something concurrent: 1. contemporary 2. happening or existing at the same time 3. simultaneous conditional: imposing, containing, subject to, or depending on a condition or conditions conduct: to lead or guide confer: 1. to grant something, like a title, to someone 2. to discuss or exchange opinions conference: 1. a meeting of people who share a similar interest attend a variety of talks or sessions about a specific subject or topic 2. a meeting confidant: 1. a person that one entrusts with their secrets 2. a person one can confide in and discuss personal matters with confine: 1. to limit or restrict 2. to forcibly keep someone or something in a certain place; to imprison confirm: 1. to check 2. to verify 3. to strengthen 4. to reinforce confirmed: 1. firmly settled in a habit 2. established 3. unlikely to change conflict: 1. a fight or a disagreement between two or more parties 2. a struggle 3. an incompatibility conform: 1. to meet (standards) 2. to comply with 3. to be similar to 4. to behave in a way that is expected and acceptable conformity: 1. agreement or compliance with a particular subject or issue 2. behavior that displays compliance with socially accepted rules or norms confound: 1. to surprise or confuse someone 2. to mix something up 3. to refute 4. to bewilder connive: 1. to secretly plan or work together with another person in order to do something illegal 2. to not do anything about illegal behavior you know about, showing one's silent compliance with the issue conscientious: 1. controlled by or done according to, what one knows is right 2. working hard and careful to do things well consensus: 1. majority opinion 2. an opinion or decision reached by all, or nearly all, members of a group 3. a general agreement consent: 1. to allow or agree with 2. to grant permission 3. to approve consequent: 1. resulting 2. following 3. progressing logically consider: to think carefully considerable: 1. quite large; substantial 2. worthy of recognition or consideration 3. noteworthy consist: 1. to be composed of 2. to be inherent 3. to be compatible consistent: 1. regular 2. not changing over time 3. constantly acting or behaving the same way conspicuous: 1. obvious; easily noticed 2. attracting attention, especially because it is strange or unusual constant: 1. unchanging 2. firm or resolute 3. persistent; continuing over a long period of time 4. loyal consternation: a feeling of worry, shock, or confusion, often caused when something unexpected happens constitute: 1. to formally set up or establish 2. to appoint someone to a position 3. to be the same as or equivalent to constitutional: 1. permitted by the constitution of a country, group or business 2. related to the constitution of a country, group or business constrain: 1. to keep back; to confine 2. to restrain; to limit 3. to force; to oblige construct: 1. to create or to form 2. to build; to put pieces together to form a whole object 3. to combine smaller pieces to develop something new construction: 1. the act or business of building things, especially structures consult: 1. to get advice from someone or something; to ask someone their opinion 2. to consider; to take into account consume: 1. to eat 2. to use; to use up 3. to totally destroy consumer: 1. a person who purchases goods or services contact: 1. to communicate with someone over the phone or by writing a letter, e-mail or text message contemporary: 1. from or existing in the same time period 2. modern contempt: 1. a feeling that someone or something is unimportant and deserves no respect 2. disregard for something that is usually respected or feared 3. open disrespect or willful disobedience of the authority of a court of law or legislative body contentious: 1. tending to argue or quarrel; quarrelsome 2. causing, involving, or characterized by argument or controversy context: 1. the circumstances surrounding something 2. the words before and after something that help explain what it means 3. the circumstances or situation in which something happens, which help to explain it contract: 1. to get smaller; to shrink 2. to make smaller 3. to hire someone to work under a contract 4. to get contradict: 1. to make a statement that goes against what has been expressed by another 2. to deny 3. to disagree with something contradiction: 1. a difference between two or more messages or statements which shows that one of the statements must be wrong 2. an inconsistency contrary: 1. opposite or completely different 2. obstinate 3. unfavorable contrast: 1. the act of finding differences between two or more things 2. a difference between two or more things contribute: 1. to write for a newspaper or a magazine 2. to give goods, money or time and effort to a person or group in order to help them contribution: 1. something one gives or does in order to help reach a shared achievement 2. a donation 3. a specific tax payment controversy: 1. a disagreement or dispute over a specific subject about which people have differing opinions 2. a heated discussion or argument convene: 1. to bring people together for a formal or official purpose such as a meeting 2. to gather convention: 1. a formal political agreement 2. a gathering or meeting of people or professionals with a shared interest 3. a social custom conventional: 1. traditional 2. based on what is considered to be traditional or typical 3. common 4. related to or based on a convention or an agreement converse: 1. to talk with a person or a group of people 2. to have a conversation conversely: 1. reciprocally 2. in a contrary manner convert: 1. to change something; to transform 2. to undergo a change 3. to change to another religion convince: 1. to make someone believe what you are saying; to persuade convinced: 1. very sure 2. persuaded 3. certain convivial: 1. (of an atmosphere or event) friendly, lively, and making you feel happy and welcome; festive 2. (of a person) cheerful and friendly; jovial 3. fond of eating, drinking, and good company; sociable; jovial cooperate: 1. to work together with one or more other people in order to reach a shared or mutually beneficial goal cooperative: 1. done with others 2. willing to work with others coordinate: 1. to harmonize 2. to make two or more things work well or efficiently together 3. to match coordination: 1. the act of making various parts work together in one organized or harmonious way copious: large in quantity or number; affording ample supply; abundant; plentiful core: 1. the center of something 2. the most important or essential part of something corporal: of or relating to the body; bodily; physical corporate: 1. belonging or pertaining to a large company or corporation 2. common or shared between people or a group of people corporeal: 1. of or relating to a person's body and not to spiritual or emotional states 2. of a material nature; tangible corpulent: 1. overweight 2. fat 3. physically large correspond: 1. to communicate through messages, letters or e-mails 2. to be related to or quite similar to corresponding: 1. related to 2. comparable 3. matching 4. directly related corroborate: strengthen, confirm or give support to (a statement, theory, etc.) by providing information or evidence that agrees with them cosmopolitan: 1. common to or representative of all or many different countries and cultures 2. containing or having experience of many different countries and cultures 3. including people from many different countries 4. free from local or national habits or prejudice counterfeit: 1. to forge a copy of something, often for illegal or dishonest reasons 2. to create a high-quality copy of something with the intention of defrauding someone couple: 1. two people who are romantically involved 2. two similar or equal things covert: 1. secretive or not openly shown 2. hidden; concealed 3. veiled create: 1. to invent something; to develop something new 2. to cause or bring about credible: 1. trustworthy 2. easy to believe or convincing 3. reliable credit: 1. money that is given to someone with the understanding that it will be paid back with interest 2. recognition or praise credulous: 1. gullible or easily deceived 2. overly willing to believe what one sees or hears 3. easily tricked or convinced criteria: 1. the standards or rules on which something is judged or based crucial: 1. of the utmost importance 2. extremely important 3. decisive cryptic: 1. mysterious 2. possessing a hidden meaning 3. written or said using a special code or cypher culpable: deserving blame or censure culture: 1. behaviors, beliefs, and standards that are shared between one large group of people or a society 2. art, such as music, literature, dance, theater, etc. cumulative: 1. increasing due to the constant addition of other elements 2. gradually increasing 3. snowballing cupidity: 1. avarice 2. a strong or excessive desire for possessions or wealth currency: 1. money; any other medium of exchange cursory: quick and probably not detailed curtail: 1. to reduce or shorten something 2. to establish a limit on something 3. to abridge cycle: 1. an extended period of time 2. a bi- or tri- cycle 3. a series of events which repeat over time cynical: 1. displaying a belief that people only act in self-interested ways 2. pessimistic or skeptical 3. distrustful of humans or human nature 4. contemptuous or condescending D data: 1. information, facts or figures about a specific subject that is often used to make a decision 2. information used by a computer dauntless: showing fearlessness and determination dearth: a lack of something or an inadequate supply debacle: 1. a complete collapse or failure, often in an embarrassing way 2. a sudden, disastrous collapse, downfall, or defeat debase: 1. to degrade 2. to adulterate 3. to reduce in quality or value 4. to humiliate debate: 1. a civil or controlled argument between two or more people or groups with opposing viewpoints 2. a formal discussion before a vote 3. discussion decade: 1. a period of ten years 2. any series or group of ten decimate: 1. destroy, kill, or remove a large number or proportion of (a group) 2. reduce, damage, or destroy the strength or effectiveness of something severely 3. select by lot and kill every tenth one of decline: 1. a fall in the number of something; a reduction 2. the act of reducing in number 3. a downward slope decoy: 1. an object used as a decoy or to bait people or animals 2. something used to lure people or animals to trick them into a dangerous situation decry: 1. to openly express displeasure or disagreement with 2. to condemn deduce: 1. to reach a conclusion based on the facts available 2. to infer deference: respectful submission to someone or something deferential: 1. considerate 2. respectful towards one's elders or superiors 3. polite defile: 1. to spoil something by making it less pure; to corrupt 2. to pollute or make something dirty define: 1. to explain exactly what something means 2. to describe what a word means 3. to clarify 4. to limit definite: 1. exact 2. clear 3. undeniable 4. certain and unlikely to change definition: 1. a clear outline of something 2. the meaning of a word or phrase degradation: 1. the act or process of degrading such as in rank, status, or condition 2. treat someone or something poorly and without respect; humiliation deleterious: 1. damaging or harmful 2. injurious to health deliberate: 1. to carefully debate or think about something serious 2. to thoughtfully weigh the available options delineate: 1. describe or portray (something) clearly and precisely 2. draw or trace the outline of; sketch or trace in outline demagogue: a person, especially an orator or political leader, who gains power and popularity by appealing to emotion, passions, prejudice, etc. rather than by using rational argument in order to win them over quickly and so gain power demonstrate: 1. to deliberately show or prove 2. to make clear demonstrative: 1. freely and openly showing one's emotions, attitudes, etc., especially of love or affection 2. serving as convincing evidence or conclusive proof of something demure: (especially of a woman or her behavior) reserved, modest, shy, and well behaved denote: 1. to be a name or symbol for 2. to indicate 3. to mean; to symbolize denounce: 1. to condemn or accuse something or someone, often in a formal manner 2. to strongly and publicly criticize someone or something deny: 1. to say that something is not true 2. to claim one is not guilty of something; to not admit 3. to not let someone have something depict: 1. show (someone or something) in a picture, drawing, painting, photograph, etc. 2. describe (someone or something) using words, a story, etc. deplete: 1. to cause a great reduction in the fullness or size of 2. to use up 3. to decrease the number of something deplore: 1. to believe something is wrong or bad 2. to lament; to regret 3. to feel great sadness about depravity: behavior that is immoral or evil; wickedness deprecate: 1. criticize or express disapproval of (someone or something) 2. depreciate; belittle depreciation: 1. decrease in value due to age, wear, decay, market conditions, etc. 2. a decrease in the purchasing or exchange value of money 3. an instance of disparaging or belittlement depress: 1. to press or force down 2. to make someone feel quite sad 3. to weaken 4. to lower the amount of something depression: 1. extreme sadness 2. a dip in a surface 3. a severe recession in an economy deride: speak of or write about (someone or something) in a way that shows you think they are stupid, unimportant, or useless; make fun of; ridicule derivative: 1. developed from, based on, influenced by, or copied something else; derived 2. copied or adapted from others; not original; secondary derive: 1. to get something from a source 2. to deduce 3. to show or trace the origin of descry: 1. see (something unclear or distant) by looking carefully 2. discover by looking carefully design: 1. a sketch or a plan that shows what something will be like when it is produced or constructed 2. a pattern or plan desist: 1. to cease or to stop 2. to abstain from doing something despite: 1. hatred or malice 2. injury despondent: very sad and with no enthusiasm from loss of hope or courage; dejected despot: 1. a ruler or other person with absolute, unlimited power, typically one who uses that power in cruel and unfair ways; autocrat 2. any tyrant or oppressor destitute: 1. extremely poor and lacking money, food, a home, or possessions 2. (often followed by of) destitute of: deprived of, devoid of, or lacking detect: 1. to note or to feel something 2. to discover or catch 3. to note the presence of deter: 1. to discourage or keep someone from doing something 2. to make someone decide not to do something by making them fear the consequences or repercussions deteriorate: 1. to get or become worse 2. to depreciate 3. to disintegrate over time deterrent: something that discourages; tending to deter detrimental: 1. causing damage or injury 2. harmful deviate: 1. to stray from the established course or standards 2. to digress device: 1. a contraption used to perform specific tasks 2. an explosive, like a bomb 3. a method used to do something devote: 1. to dedicate time or resources to something 2. to set apart dexterous: 1. skillful in the use of one's hands 2. possessing great mental skill; clever diatribe: an angry, bitter, and sharply abusive speech or piece of writing that strongly criticizes, denounces, or attacks against someone or something differentiate: 1. to determine or recognize the difference between two or more things; to distinguish 2. to make one thing unlike another diffuse: 1. pour out and cause to spread freely, as a fluid 2. spread or scatter over a wide area widely or thinly; disseminate; dispersed; not concentrated in one area 3. spread among a large group of people 4. cause (light) to spread evenly to reduce glare dilemma: 1. a serious problem 2. a situation in which a difficult decision must be made diligent: steady, hard-working, and careful in one's work or duties; industrious; painstaking dimension: 1. a property or way of measuring space 2. a part or aspect of something larger diminish: 1. to reduce or make smaller 2. to become smaller or less diminutive: extremely or unusually short or small in size; much smaller than ordinary or average; very small; little; tiny dire: 1. causing or involving great fear or suffering; dreadful; terrible 2. warning of or indicating dreadful or terrible future (trouble, disaster, misfortune, etc.) 3. extremely serious or urgent; requiring immediate action discern: 1. see, recognize, find out, or understand something that is far away or not very clear 2. perceive or recognize (someone or something) with difficulty by the sight or some other sense 3. come to know, recognize, or distinguish mentally discord: 1. disagreement among people or things 2. dispute or strife 3. a lack of harmony discount: a reduction in the usual price of something discrepancy: 1. a difference or variation between things that should be identical 2. inconsistency 3. disagreement discrete: 1. distinct 2. separate 3. not continuous discretion: 1. the ability to judge people or situations wisely and make the right choices 2. the ability to behave in a way that does not cause offense discriminate: 1. to treat someone or a group of people differently due to their origin, race, sex or other trait 2. to distinguish or see the difference between things disdain: the feeling of not liking someone or something and thinking that they are not important and do not deserve any interest, respect, notice, response, etc. disparage: 1. speak of in a slighting or disrespectful way; belittle 2. lower in rank or reputation disparity: 1. a large difference between two or more things 2. inequality 3. incongruity dispel: 1. make (a doubt, fear, belief, feeling, or idea) go away or end, usually by proving them wrong or unnecessary 2. drive away or off in various directions; disperse; dissipate displace: 1. to force someone or something out of its proper place or position 2. to take over for 3. to remove displacement: 1. the act of removing someone or something from the place it held or lived previously display: 1. to show or present 2. to demonstrate 3. to reveal dispose: 1. to get rid of or throw away 2. to make someone feel a certain way 3. to arrange disseminate: 1. spread (something, especially news, information, ideas, etc.) widely 2. scatter widely, as in sowing seed distinct: 1. different or separate 2. unmistakable; obvious distinction: 1. honor or excellence 2. something that makes a person or a thing different from the rest distort: 1. to misrepresent or give false information 2. to change something so that it is no longer the way it originally was distribute: 1. to give out or hand out 2. to spread something out over a surface 3. to deliver products distribution: 1. the act of giving something out to people 2. the way in which something is distributed or spread out over an area diurnal: 1. daily; happening every day 2. done during the daytime or related to daytime divergent: 1. tending to split and move out in different directions from a single point; diverging 2. be or become different diverse: 1. possessing various characteristics 2. distinct 3. diversified diversity: 1. difference or variety 2. the state of having people from different races and cultures gathered together in one space or organization divert: 1. to distract 2. to make something move in a different direction or on a different course 3. to use for a different purpose than the original 4. to amuse or entertain docile: 1. submissive 2. easy to handle, manage or teach 3. compliant doctrine: 1. a belief or set of beliefs that are taught and accepted by a religious, political, scientific, or other group; dogma 2. a statement of official government policy, especially in foreign or military affairs document: 1. to record something on paper or in digital format 2. to provide written evidence dogmatic: an authoritative, arrogant assertion of unproved or unprovable principles as if they are certainly correct and cannot be doubted domain: 1. territory 2. field of activity or study 3. a set or group of websites that share the same suffix such as .net .org etc. domestic: 1. related to house, home or family 2. from one's own country dominant: 1. governing; ruling; exercising one's control 2. more important than similar things 3. commanding dominate: 1. to be very good at something 2. to command; to have power over 3. to be the most important or largest thing in a group dormant: 1. sleeping, lying asleep or as if asleep; inactive 2. not active or developing now, but it may become active or develop in the future 3. in a state of rest or inactivity; inoperative draft: 1. the first draft or copy of something 2. a sketch 3. a rush of air through a building or space drama: 1. a play that is performed in a theater, on television or on the radio 2. a literary work that deals with a serious subject 3. the art of performing dramatic: 1. sensational 2. pronounced 3. extremely sudden 4. extreme dubious: 1. doubtful 2. questionable 3. not totally good or honest 4. undecided duration: 1. the amount of time that something lasts dynamic: 1. full of energy; enthusiastic 2. constantly changing 3. relating to energy or physical forces E eccentric: 1. strange 2. unusual 3. unconventional and deviating from what is considered to be "normal" behavior eclectic: 1. selecting or choosing from various sources, systems, or styles 2. made up of or combining elements from a variety of sources economic: 1. cheap 2. pertaining to the economy of a country or region 3. related to the system of buying and selling goods and services economy: 1. the money and production of goods and services of a specific political region 2. thriftiness or careful management when spending money edit: 1. to revise a document and change whatever errors one sees 2. to produce a book or document by gathering different works together edition: 1. a group of a publications that were published at the same time 2. a specific version or a book or a product effigy: 1. a sculpture or monument of a person 2. a poorly made dummy that looks like or represents a person and is most often used in protest or ridicule effluent: something that flows out or forth, especially sewage or other liquid waste egregious: 1. something terribly bad 2. something surprisingly negative elated: 1. very happy and excited; exultantly proud and joyful; overjoyed 2. make very proud, happy, or joyful element: 1. a specific part of something tangible 2. a characteristic of something abstract or intangible 3. the most basic information about a certain subject elicit: 1. evoke or draw out (a response, information, etc.) from someone 2. draw out or entice forth; bring to light eliminate: 1. to get rid of 2. to abolish 3. to remove eloquent: 1. persuasive in speaking or writing 2. characterized by fluent and persuasive speech 3. movingly or vividly expressive elucidate: make clear, plain, or easy to understand, especially by explanation or giving more information; clarify; explain elude: 1. avoid or escape from (a danger, enemy, or pursuer) by quickness, cunning, etc.; evade 2. fail to be understood or remembered by (someone) 3. fail to be achieved by (someone) elusive: 1. difficult to describe, find, catch, achieve, understand, or remember 2. cleverly or skillfully evasive emaciated: 1. extremely thin due to great hunger or illness emancipate: 1. to liberate someone or something 2. to free someone or something from bondage or control 3. to grant freedom and rights to someone embezzle: 1. to secretly take money for your own use from someone who trusts you 2. to defraud emerge: 1. to appear 2. to come into view 3. to become known 4. to come into existence empathy: the ability to understand and share the feelings, thoughts, attitudes, experiences, and emotions of another emphasis: 1. the importance that is specifically placed on something 2. stress empirical: relying on or derived from observation or experiment rather than theory or pure logic emulate: try to equal or excel (someone or something you admire), typically by imitation enable: 1. to make someone able to do something 2. to give someone the tools or resources to do something 3. to allow someone to do something encompass: 1. form a circle or ring around; encircle; surround 2. include different types of people or things; include comprehensively; contain 3. enclose; envelop encounter: 1. to find someone or something unexpectedly 2. to stumble across 3. to face endemic: 1. very common, prevalent in, or peculiar to a particular locality, region, or people 2. native endorse: 1. to publicly declare one's support for something 2. to acknowledge a document by signing it endurance: 1. the ability or power to withstand stress or an unpleasant situation 2. the act of persevering 3. duration energy: 1. the effort or power needed to do something 2. heat, electricity, light or the resources used to produce power enforce: 1. to make someone comply with a law or a rule 2. to cause or force something engage: to occupy the attention enhance: intensify, increase, or improve the quality, amount, extent, or strength of something, as in cost, value, attractiveness, effectiveness, etc. enigma: someone or something that is mysterious, puzzling, and difficult to understand or explain completely enmity: 1. animosity 2. hatred 3. ill-will towards others 4. a deep-seated dislike of another person enormous: 1. extremely large in size or quantity 2. massive ensure: 1. to make sure that something happens or happened 2. to guarantee 3. to secure or make safe entity: 1. an individual, complete, unit that possesses its own unique characteristics 2. a being enumerate: 1. name (a number of things in a series or list) separately, one by one 2. determine the number of; count environment: 1. all of the conditions and circumstances that surround a specific person, animal or thing 2. the surroundings ephemeral: lasting for only a very short time equate: 1. to equalize 2. to make two or more things equal 3. to consider things equal equation: 1. a math problem 2. the act of considering one thing to be the same as another equip: 1. to give someone the tools or skills necessary to perform a job 2. to dress equipment: 1. supplies or tools needed to complete a task equitable: dealing fairly and equally with everyone; just and impartial equivalent: 1. equal to 2. of the same amount, size, value, meaning equivocal: 1. not clear and seeming to have two or more possible opposing meanings 2. ambiguous erode: 1. to eat away or wear away something 2. to slowly deteriorate 3. to reduce something erosion: 1. the gradual corroding or eating away of a subject 2. deterioration erratic: 1. irregular in movement or behavior 2. not following a regular pattern 3. not doing what is expected erudite: having, containing, or showing a lot of knowledge or learning gained from reading eschew: 1. to escape or avoid 2. to stop doing something or give something up 3. to intentionally keep away from something espouse: 1. to marry someone or take them as your spouse 2. to give your support to a belief or an idea 3. to embrace a cause establish: to set up estate: 1. a rather large piece of property 2. all of one's possessions at death estimate: 1. to make a guess or calculate the amount or value of something 2. to judge ethic: 1. a belief or set of beliefs which affects one's behavior 2. a person's moral principles or standards ethnic: 1. of or relating to a specific group of people who share a common race, heritage, set of customs or traditions etymology: 1. the study of the history and origins of words 2. the study of the evolution of words euphemism: 1. a word that is substituted for another, often unpleasant,offensive or upsetting, word evacuate: 1. to empty something out 2. to make people move out of or away from an area that is in danger 3. to remove or discharge evaluate: 1. to judge 2. to closely examine something before determining its value eventual: 1. happening at a time in the future that has not been specified eventually: 1. in the end 2. at an unspecified time in the future 3. finally evidence: 1. material that shows someone is innocent or guilty of something 2. material that proves something evident: clearly and easily seen or understood evoke: 1. bring (a memory, feeling, image, etc.) into the mind 2. bring out; arouse; call forth evolution: 1. gradual development or change, especially over long periods of time evolve: 1. to grow 2. to develop gradually over an extended period of time 3. to go through evolutionary changes exacerbate: increase the severity, violence, or bitterness of (disease, pain, annoyance, etc.) exacting: 1. rigid or severe in demands or requirements; not easily satisfied; rigorous 2. requiring great effort, time, care, patience, or attention excavate: 1. dig a large hole or channel in the ground, especially with a machine 2. uncover or expose by digging; unearth 3. dig out and remove (earth, soil, etc.) 4. form (a hole, tunnel, etc.) by digging exceed: 1. to surpass 2. to go beyond 3. to be greater than exclude: 1. to leave someone or something out 2. to eject 3. to deliberately not include 4. to prevent exemplify: 1. to serve as a typical example of 2. to use an example to illustrate or clarify 2. to embody exhaustive: 1. complete; comprehensive 2. dealing with or studying all aspects 3. all-inclusive exhibit: 1. to display or show 2. to present to the public 3. to reveal exhort: strongly encourage or urge (someone) to do something by strong, often stirring argument, admonition, advice, or appeal; admonish strongly exorbitant: going far beyond what is reasonable, fair, expected, just, proper, or usual, especially of a price or amount charged expand: 1. to add details or information 2. to grow larger 3. to cause growth or to make larger expansion: 1. growth 2. the act or process of getting larger 3. an increase in size or number expedient: helpful or useful in a particular situation and produces an immediate result or solution to a problem, even though possibly improper or immoral expedite: 1. to hasten; to make something happen more quickly 2. to speed up 3. to do something efficiently as well as quickly expert: 1. a person who has a great deal of knowledge about or skill in a specific subject explicit: fully and clearly expressed or demonstrated, leaving no room for confusion or doubt exploit: 1. to take advantage of 2. to make use of exploitation: 1. selfish utilization of someone's work 2. abuse of someone in order to gain advantage export: 1. to sell or send abroad 2. to introduce or transmit an idea from one country into another expose: 1. make (something) visible by uncovering it 2. lay open to danger, attack, harm, etc.; leave unprotected or without covering 3. make known, disclose, or reveal (something hidden, dishonest, etc.) 4. (expose oneself) display one's sexual organs in public exposition: 1. a show where works of art are displayed for the public to contemplate 2. a clear, detailed, easy to understand explanation 3. a show in which many objects that are for sale are displayed exposure: 1. the disclosure or revealing of something 2. the state of having no protection from the elements or other harmful agents expunge: 1. to get rid of or cancel 2. to get rid of something written by erasing it or striking it out external: 1. from or located out the outside; outer 2. coming from the outside or an outside source 3. peripheral extol: praise (someone or something) highly, especially in a very enthusiastic way extract: 1. to remove or pull something out of another source 2. to convince a person to give you something they don't want to give you, often through the use of force F fabricate: 1. to create 2. to manufacture 3. to build facilitate: 1. to help make something happen 2. to assist 3. to make something easier faction: 1. a small group within a larger group, usually contentious minority within a larger group 2. conflict within an organization or nation; internal dissension factor: 1. a variable or an element 2. something that influences a result fallacious: 1. based on false information or ideas; erroneous; illogical 2. deceptive; misleading fallacy: 1. a mistaken belief that a lot of people think is true but is in fact false 2. (logic) a mistake or failure in reasoning that makes an argument or idea invalid 3. a misleading or unsound argument 4. deceptive, misleading, or false nature falter: 1. to move or speak in an unsteady, awkward manner 2. to stop doing something, even for just a moment 3. to lose strength fastidious: 1. very attentive to small details and wanting everything to be correct and perfect 2. difficult to please; exacting 3. wanting (clothes, possessions, and property) to always be clean, neat, etc. fathom: 1. a unit of length equal to 6 feet (1.83 meters), a unit for measuring the depth of water 2. understand the reason for (something) thoroughly after much thought fatuous: 1. something or someone that is silly, foolish or pointless feasible: 1. achievable 2. capable of being done or accomplished 3. possible 4. likely feature: 1. a part or aspect of something 2. a quality federal: 1. related to the central or national government 2. related to the system of federalism, a system in which states or provinces and central governments share power fee: 1. to pay a tip to someone 2. to pay someone for their services feral: 1. a wild or undomesticated animal 2. a person who behaves in a wild manner fervent: 1. having or showing great warmth or intensity of spirit, feeling, enthusiasm, etc. 2. hot; boiling; burning; glowing fickle: 1. likely to change one's opinion; not constant 2. unstable; frequently changing file: 1. to cut away using a file 2. to put in order; to arrange 3. to submit or send a document 4. to walk in a line final: 1. last; concluding 2. ultimate 3. coming at the end finance: 1. money that is used to pay for a large and expensive project 2. the money that a person, company or nation has 3. the management of money financial: 1. related to money or finance finite: 1. limited 2. measurable 3. having an end flabbergasted: 1. shocked 2. surprised 3. dumbfounded flagrant: 1. (of a bad action, situation, person, etc.) shockingly noticeable or evident; obviously offensive; glaringly bad; notorious; outrageous 2. notorious; scandalous flamboyant: 1. excessively decorated 2. ornate 3. brightly colored and showy, often to draw attention to someone or something flaunt: 1. to show something, like a personal quality, wanting to get admiration from others 2. to flaunt something fledgling: 1. a young bird just fledged 2. a young, inexperienced, or underdeveloped person or organization flexibility: 1. the ability or willingness to make changes 2. easily bent 3. adaptability flexible: 1. pliable; capable of being manipulated 2. able to change or be modified 3. able to be bent flout: 1. to scorn something 2. to reject 3. to consciously refuse to comply with a rule or law fluctuate: 1. to constantly undergo changes 2. to undulate 3. to shift back and forth; to rise and fall focus: 1. the center point of something 2. the center of attention 3. the main point format: 1. to arrange a document in a specific way 2. to prepare a computer disk to save specific files formula: 1. a fixed or standard way of doing something 2. mathematical symbols that express a rule or a fact forsake: 1. to desert or abandon someone who needs you 2. to give up something special or important forthcoming: 1. upcoming; approaching 2. appearing shortly 3. helpful; collaborative fortitude: mental and emotional strength in facing or enduring pain, difficulty, adversity, misfortune, danger, or temptation with courage fortuitous: 1. happening by accident or chance rather than intention, especially in a way that is lucky or convenient 2. lucky; fortunate foster: 1. promote the growth or development of (something, especially something desirable and over a period of time) 2. bring up with care, raise, or rear a child, usually for a limited time, without being the child's legal parent foundation: 1. the base on which something is built 2. an organization that deals with social issues or projects 3. the underlying principle or basis fractious: 1. irritable and quarrelsome 2. difficult to control; unruly framework: 1. the basic structure for something 2. something's skeleton 3. a set of rules around which something is done fraudulent: 1. dishonest and illegal; based on fraud or deception; using fraud; tricky; deceitful; dishonest 2. done or obtained by deception, especially criminal deception fraught: filled, charged, or loaded (with), especially unpleasant or undesirable things such as problems, difficulties, or things that are confusing frivolous: 1. not serious 2. unimportant 3. carefree in nature and superficial 4. trivial frugal: 1. sparing or economical in use or expenditure; not wasteful; not spending freely or unnecessarily 2. simple, cheap, and not very big function: 1. a duty or an activity that one must perform 2. a formal event 3. a purpose fund: 1. money saved or collected that is destined for a specific purpose 2. a large supply of something 3. capital fundamental: 1. essential 2. of great importance 3. basic furrow: 1. a deep wrinkle in one's skin 2. a line in the ground that was dug by a plow 3. a long line or channel in any surface furthermore: 1. in addition 2. moreover 3. besides 4. additionally furtive: done quietly, quickly and secretly to avoid being noticed futile: 1. incapable of producing any result; unsuccessful, or useless; ineffective 2. of no importance; worthless G garrulous: talking much or too much, especially about things that are not important gaunt: 1. extremely thin due to illness or hunger 2. empty or barren 3. dreary gender: 1. one's sex or sexual identity 2. all members of a specific sex generate: 1. to create or bring about 2. to produce 3. to produce energy, like electricity generation: 1. a group of people in a society or in a family that were born in the same general age 2. a period of around thirty years in which people are born, grow up, and have babies of their own genial: 1. cheerful, friendly, and sympathetic; amiable 2. (of air or climate) pleasantly mild and warm; favorable for life, growth, or comfort glacial: 1. icy or unfriendly 2. related to a glacier 3. slow moving 4. extraordinarily cold global: 1. world-wide 2. found around the world 3. comprehensive globe: 1. a spherical shape; a ball 2. a map of the world which is printed on a sphere 3. the earth gluttony: 1. the act of eating and drinking more than one needs 2. excess in eating or drinking goad: 1. to provoke someone 2. to urge someone on 3. to tease or incite a person or an animal goal: 1. an aim, target or objective 2. the area where players must put a ball or puck in order to receive points in various sporting events gossamer: 1. a fine, filmy cobweb often seen floating in the air or caught on bushes or grass 2. (something) delicate, light, delicate or flimsy grade: 1. a level or rank 2. a number or letter that indicates the quality of something grandiose: 1. (in a good sense) large and impressive, in size, effect, grandeur, or extent 2. (in a bad sense) seeming or trying to seem very important, but really looking artificial or silly; pompous and showy 3. more complicated or elaborate than necessary grant: 1. to give something to someone 2. to allow someone to have something 3. to bestow grate: 1. to shred something, such as cheese 2. to persistently annoy 3. to produce an annoying sound through friction gratis: 1. free 2. without charge or price gratuitous: 1. unearned; not called for 2. not necessary 3. with no cause 4. free gravity: 1. the force that pulls matter toward a center of attraction; the force that pulls matter to the ground 2. seriousness or solemnity gregarious: 1. an extremely sociable person 2. an animal that tends to live in flocks or herds guarantee: 1. the promise that something will happen or that something is true 2. an assurance guideline: 1. a rule or benchmark 2. information tells people how something should be done guile: clever and usually dishonest methods to achieve something or to make others do what you want H hamper: slow or prevent the free movement, progress, or action of (someone or something); hold back; hinder; impede harangue: 1. a long, angry and vociferous speech, often made with the intention of persuading someone 2. an aggressive and highly opinionated piece of writing hardy: 1. capable of enduring extreme conditions or difficult situations; robust 2. bold or daring; courageous 3. brazenly daring; audacious 4. (of plants) able to survive outside during winter without protection from the weather hasten: 1. make something happen sooner or more quickly; speed up; accelerate 2. move or act quickly; hurry 3. cause to hurry haughty: having or showing irrational pride in oneself and irrational disdain for others headlong: 1. with the head leading 2. very quickly and without taking time to think about your actions headstrong: 1. stubborn and unwilling to change 2. strong-willed 3. very determined to do what one wishes, despite warnings from others heed: 1. to listen to or pay attention, especially when referring to advice or warnings 2. to consider or take notice of hence: 1. therefore 2. for this reason 3. from this time 4. from this place hierarchy: 1. the order of people based on their rank or status 2. a system where people or things are ranked based on their status highlight: 1. to stress something 2. to make something appear more important 3. to emphasize hinder: 1. to limit someone's possibilities or the ability to do something 2. to hamper or impede 3. to slow something down homogeneous: of the same or similar nature or kind homogenous: of the same or similar nature or kind hubris: excessive pride or self-confidence that offends people; arrogance resulting from excessive pride or from passion hypocrisy: 1. the act or process of pretending to believe in something you don't believe in 2. being two-faced, false or insincere hypocritical: 1. two-faced 2. insincere; never meaning what one says 2. behaving in a way which contradicts your professed beliefs hypothesis: an unproved theory, proposition, supposition, etc. that is made on the basis of limited evidence and not proven but that leads to further study, discussion, or investigation, etc. I identical: 1. exactly alike 2. the same as something else 3. extraordinarily similar identify: 1. to discover 2. to equate 3. to recognize a person or a problem ideology: 1. a set of ideas which influence or govern a person or a society idiosyncrasy: 1. a strange or unusual habit, way of behaving, or feature that is characteristic of a person, especially that is different from most people 2. an unusual feature or characteristic of something 3. an unusual individual reaction to food or a drug ignorant: 1. not aware 2. possessing little knowledge or training 3. uneducated; uninformed illuminate: 1. to make something brighter; to brighten 2. to explain something in a way that makes it understandable; to instruct illusory: 1. not real despite appearing as if it's real 2. deceptive illustrate: 1. to show something or explain, especially by giving examples 2. to draw pictures that are to be used in a book or other written document 3. to represent image: 1. a picture or a visual representation of something 2. a mental picture of something immigrate: 1. to enter a foreign country with the purpose of permanently living there immigration: 1. the act of moving into a new country in order to live there impact: 1. a collision; the moment when two or more bodies hit 2. the effect that an event has on a person; an influence impartial: 1. fair and unbiased 2. refraining from supporting a specific side in an argument 3. not partial impeccable: 1. without fault 2. perfect 3. flawless 4. not capable of sin impecunious: having little or no money impertinent: 1. rude and not demonstrating the amount of respect that is customary for the situation at hand implacable: 1. someone with strong ideas which are impossible to change 2. unable to appease implement: 1. to put something in force or into effect 2. to carry out implicate: 1. to demonstrate, imply or show that a person is involved in something, such as a crime implication: something implied or suggested without saying it directly implicit: 1. not explicitly said or explained; implied 2. suggested imply: 1. express or indicate (something) indirectly 2. indicate or suggest without saying or showing impose: 1. to force people to comply with a rule or to accept something 2. to demand impoverished: 1. very poor; poverty stricken 2. something that has become worse than it previously was impromptu: 1. done without any planning 2. unrehearsed 3. offhand impudent: 1. insolent 2. rude towards others 3. disrespectful toward someone that should receive respect inadvertent: 1. accidental or not on purpose 2. not intentional 3. heedless inane: 1. lacking sense, meaning, substance, or importance; silly 2. empty; void; vacant incentive: 1. something that motivates people to do something or take action 2. a reward or the threat of punishment that inspires people to act inchoate: not completely formed or developed yet; disorganized; incomplete incidence: 1. the rate or frequency at which something happens 2. occurrence incipient: 1. just starting 2. in the beginning stages 3. beginning to appear incisive: 1. sharp 2. penetrating 3. clearly expressed 4. direct inclination: 1. a tendency to support something or like something; a preference 2. a slope or angle incline: 1. to be in favor of something or have a preference 2. to bend or slant 3. to slope incoherent: 1. unclear; difficult to understand 2. rambling or disjointed 3. lacking unity income: 1. money that one receives in exchange for one's work or smart investing 2. revenue 3. a company's profits incompatible: 1. unable to exist together in harmony or agreement because of basic differences 2. not consistent or able to coexist with (another) incongruous: 1. inappropriate or not considered to be normal 2. incompatible or inconsistent with the rest of things in its group or time incontrovertible: 1. very clear and obviously true; undeniable incorporate: 1. to include something into a larger unit or group 2. to combine incredulous: 1. unwilling or unable to believe something, and usually showing this; doubting; skeptical 2. showing doubt or disbelief 3. incredible; not easy to be believed indefatigable: 1. untiring and inexhaustible 2. not yielding to fatigue despite persisting in labor or effort for a long time indelible: 1. impossible to remove or forget 2. producing marks that cannot be erased or removed 3. permanent index: 1. an alphabetical list showing all that is included in a book or a larger document 2. an alphabetical list of the documents in a collection 3. an indication indicate: 1. to show 2. to be a sign of 3. to signal 4. to suggest indifferent: 1. not caring about something; apathetic or indifferent 2. impartial 3. unremarkable or average indigenous: existing, growing, or produced naturally in a particular place or climate; native indignant: feeling or showing anger or annoyance at unfair, mean, or ungrateful action or treatment individual: 1. a single human being 2. a person indolent: 1. disliking or avoiding work; idle; lazy 2. causing little or no pain 3. slow to heal, grow, or develop; inactive induce: 1. persuade or influence someone to do something 2. bring about, produce, or cause 3. draw (a general rule or conclusion) by inductive reasoning indulgent: 1. allowing someone to do or have what they want, especially when it may not be proper, healthy, appropriate, etc. 2. indulging or inclined to indulge, especially when you should be strict inept: 1. not effective 2. unfit or wrong in an inappropriate way 3. awkward or clumsy inert: 1. unable to move or act 2. moving or acting very slowly 3. not energetic or interesting inertia: 1. lack of activity 2. the fact that matter moves in the same direction unless acted upon by another force inevitable: 1. impossible to avoid, evade, escape, or prevent 2. sure to happen inevitably: 1. in a way that isn't preventable 2. not able to be avoided inexorable: 1. incapable of being altered, swayed or stopped 2. not capable of being persuaded infamy: extremely bad reputation for having done bad things or for being evil infer: form an opinion or guess that something is true by reasoning, especially based on known facts, evidence, or premises infrastructure: 1. the underlying features of something; framework 2. a country's basic systems, such as power, water or transportation ingenious: clever, resourceful, original, and inventive inherent: existing in someone or something as a natural and inseparable element, quality, right, or attribute inhibit: 1. prevent someone from doing what he or she wants to do 2. prevent or slow down the activity, growth or occurrence of (something) 3. restrain, hinder, arrest, or check (an action, impulse, etc.) initial: 1. first 2. occurring at the beginning of something 3. incipient initiate: 1. to begin 2. to introduce a person to into a subject or knowledge; to teach someone 3. to formally admit someone into a group injure: 1. to physically hurt or harm someone or something 2. to offend someone or hurt them mentally or emotionally injury: 1. physical harm caused by violence or an accident innate: 1. a quality or ability existing in one from birth 2. an essential characteristic existing as part of the basic nature innocuous: 1. that does not injure or harm 2. not likely to bother or offend anyone 3. not likely to arouse strong feelings or hostility innovate: 1. to begin to use or to invent new ideas, concepts, products, equipment, etc. 2. to make changes innovation: 1. the use of something new; a change to a particular process insatiable: 1. not able to be satisfied 2. never satisfied 3. very greedy insert: 1. to put or place something in something else 2. to add something insidious: 1. seemingly harmless yet, in truth, damaging and harmful 2. slowly acting and causing harm insight: 1. understanding of a specific theme or topic 2. the ability to clearly understand a difficult or complicated situation or topic insipid: 1. without flavor; tasteless 2. not interesting or exciting; dull; boring inspect: 1. to carefully examine something, especially in search of problems or flaws 2. to make an official visit to ensure that rules are being followed or complied with inspection: 1. the act of examining something by an official or a person who has been specially trained 2. an official or formal review instance: 1. an occurrence 2. an example used to demonstrate something institute: 1. an organization that promotes education or art 2. an organization that carries out research 3. an organization with a specific purpose instruct: 1. to teach someone 2. to show someone how to do something 3. to direct or give orders insular: 1. ignorant of or no interested in cultures, ideas, or peoples outside your own group or country 2. not interested in learning new ideas or ways of doing things 3. of, relating to, or from an island integral: 1. fundamental; essential 2. of the utmost importance 3. necessary integrate: 1. to add something to a unit to make it whole 2. to combine two or more things 3. to join; to unify integrity: 1. the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles 2. the quality or state of being whole and undivided 3. the quality or state of being unimpaired; soundness intelligence: 1. the ability to learn or to acquire knowledge or skills 2. classified or secret information about an organization or a country intend: plan intense: 1. acute 2. very strong; extreme 3. profound interact: 1. to communicate with and react to another human 2. to act on interaction: 1. the act of communicating and acting with other individuals intermediate: 1. in the middle of two things, places, etc. 2. between two levels; between basic and advanced intermittent: 1. happening at irregular intervals 2. not steady 3. stopping and starting internal: 1. found or existing within certain limits 2. inner 3. interior interpret: 1. to understand something in a certain way 2. to explain something or make it possible to understand 3. to convert someone's spoken words into another language interpretation: 1. explanation 2. definition 3. the act of orally translating from one language to another interval: 1. the space or spaces between things 2. the period of time between two things 3. a pause intervene: 1. to get involved or become involved in a situation in order to change its suspected outcome 2. to interrupt 3. to be situated between two things intervention: 1. the act of becoming involved in something intransigent: unwilling or refusing to change your opinions or behavior with no good reason intrepid: very bold or brave and showing no fear of dangerous situations; fearless intrinsic: 1. inherent 2. relating to the basic nature of something 3. fundamental intuitive: 1. of, relating to, or arising from intuition; instinctive 2. known or perceived through intuition inundate: overwhelm (someone or something) by sending or providing with a large amount of things at the same time invest: 1. to put one's money into something with the intention of eventually earning money from the project 2. to give power or rank to 3. to install a new leader 4. to endow investigate: 1. to thoroughly examine something 2. to explore a topic in order to learn the truth about it 3. to try to get information about something investigation: 1. research or inquiry 2. the act of trying to find information about something in order to better understand it inveterate: 1. established or habitual 2. deep-rooted 3. settled in a habit and unlikely to change invoke: 1. request blessing, help, inspiration, support, etc. from someone, especially God, a god, a saint, etc. 2. ask for; request earnestly 3. make someone have a particular feeling or remember something involve: 1. to engage 2. to include something as necessary 3. to cause a person to participate or get involved irate: feeling or showing extreme anger; very angry; enraged ironic: 1. using words that literally mean the opposite of what the speaker or writer wants to say, especially when one wants to express humor irony: a method of humorous or subtly sarcastic expression in which the intended meaning of the words is different from and often opposite to their literal meaning irrevocable: 1. unable to be taken away 2. unable to be changed 3. final isolate: 1. to seclude someone or something 2. to place something in quarantine 3. to separate something or someone isolated: 1. separated from others 2. occurring just one time issue: topic item: 1. a single object 2. a piece of news 3. a subject to be discussed or dealt with J jeopardize: 1. to put something or someone in danger or at risk 2. to threaten journal: 1. a newspaper or magazine 2. a magazine that contains articles about a specific subject 3. a written record of the day 4. a logbook jubilant: 1. thrilled 2. feeling and expressing great joy 3. expressing extreme happiness, often due to a victory or success judicious: having, applying, or showing reason and good judgment or sense in making decisions justification: 1. the reason behind something; something that explains or justifies something else justify: 1. to explain or defend one's position or reasoning 2. to adjust one's text so that the right and left edges of a document are equal 3. to prove something to be correct K kindle: 1. to build or light a fire 2. to make something burn; to ignite 3. to arouse an emotion or cause a feeling 4. to stir up knell: 1. the sad and somber sound of a bell, especially while it tolls for a person who has died L label: 1. a piece of material on an object that gives information about the object 2. a name or phrase assigned to a person to classify them, often in an unfair manner 3. a company that produces music labour: 1. work or physical exertion 2. the process of giving birth to a baby 3. workers, when considered collectively lackluster: 1. dull in color or brightness 2. boring 3. unimaginative laconic: using very few words in speech, writing, or expression; terse; concise languid: 1. lacking enthusiasm, energy, or strength; without interest or spirit 2. (of a period of time) relaxed and pleasant 3. weak or faint from illness or fatigue 4. slow in progress; tardy latent: exists but is not active, obvious, completely developed, or cannot be seen laudable: deserving or worthy of praise lavish: 1. extravagant or expensive 2. liberal in one's spending or giving of money 3. impressive 4. generous 5. sumptuous lax: 1. not as strict or strong 2. loose 3. not careful layer: 1. different tiers that make something up 2. a thin sheet of a certain substance 3. a substance that is above or under another substance lecture: 1. a speech or lesson about a specific subject 2. a speech that is open to to the public 3. a long and serious scolding legal: 1. allowed or permitted by law 2. related or connected to law legend: 1. the part of a map or a chart where each symbol or color are explained 2. a story that has been told over generations that may or may not be true; myth legislate: 1. to create and pass laws legislation: 1. laws 2. the act of lawmaking lethargic: 1. sluggish or drowsy; tired or slightly tired 2. apathetic leviathan: 1. something or someone that is very large and powerful, especially a ship 2. a very large animal, especially a whale levity: 1. lack of seriousness, especially when strictness is required or appropriate 2. frivolity 3. fickleness levy: 1. to impose a tax, fee or fine on 2. to officially request the payment of a tax, fee or fine liberal: 1. tolerant or open-minded 2. in favor of personal rights and freedoms 3. in favor of reform and progressive policies 4. generous likewise: 1. similarly 2. moreover 3. in addition limpid: 1. transparent; clear 2. easily intelligible 3. serene and without worry link: 1. to connect two or more things 2. to relate things 3. to join lithe: young, healthy, attractive, and able to move and bend in an easy and graceful way locate: 1. to find 2. to situate 3. to be in a certain place 4. to discover the exact position location: 1. the place where someone or something can be found 2. place lofty: 1. elevated; high 2. arrogant; thinking that one is better or more important than others 3. tall logic: 1. a specific or formal way of thinking 2. the scientific study of the processes used when humans reason or think longevity: 1. long life 2. the length or duration of life 3. long existence or service loquacious: tending to talk a lot or too much lucid: 1. very clear and easy to understand 2. clear; transparent 3. able to think clearly lucrative: producing a lot of wealth or profit; profitable ludicrous: 1. absurd 2. laughable; deserving of or causing laughter 3. ridiculous lull: 1. cause to sleep, rest, or calm, typically with soothing sounds or movements 2. cause someone feel secure, relaxed, or confident instead of careful and alert, especially by deception 3. a temporary calm, quiet, or stillness, as in a storm 4. become calm lurid: 1. causing shock or horror, especially because involving violence, sex, or immoral activity; gruesome 2. glowing with an unnatural glare and in an ugly way M magnanimous: 1. kind, generous, or forgiving in overlooking injury or insult, especially towards a rival or less powerful person; free from petty resentfulness or vindictiveness 2. high-minded; generous and noble magnate: 1. a very successful or very important person in a specific industry maintain: 1. to keep something at the same level, rate or condition 2. to continue 3. to firmly declare or assert maintenance: 1. financial support given from one ex-spouse to another 2. upkeep 3. the act of maintaining major: 1. quite important 2. serious 3. large 4. more important malady: 1. an illness, disease or ailment 2. a major problem malevolent: causing or wanting to cause harm or evil to another or others; malicious; evil malleable: 1. (of a metal or other material) able to be hammered, pounded, or pressed into various shapes without breaking or cracking 2. easily influenced, trained, or controlled; adaptable manifold: 1. multiple or many in number 2. varied or consisting of multiple parts or elements 3. plentiful, numerous manipulate: 1. to change or modify, especially to suit one's purposes 2. to handle 3. to influence or control someone manual: 1. a guide book that tells one how to operate or use something 2. an instruction book margin: 1. a border or edge 2. the difference between the cost of production of a good and the amount at which it is sold marginal: 1. not important 2. quite small 3. on the margin or border marred: damaged or disfigured by injury or rough wear; spoiled; impaired marshal: 1. to organize or arrange things or people 2. to ceremoniously lead people mature: 1. to grow old 2. to develop 3. to ripen maverick: a person who refuses to follow the customs or rules of or resists adherence to a group maxim: 1. a general truth that someone lives by 2. a rule of conduct 3. a proverb maximise: 1. to make as large as possible 2. to make the most of something 3. to use something in a way that allows one to get the best possible result maximum: 1. the highest possible amount or largest quantity mechanism: 1. a machine or device 2. the working parts of a machine media: 1. companies or institutions that report the news through the television, radio, press, internet, etc. 2. mass communication when considered as a whole mediate: 1. to settle disputes through negotiation 2. to be an intermediary 3. to work with opposing sides to reach an agreement medium: 1. a way of expressing something, such as photography or print 2. something in a middle position 3. surrounding objects; environment melancholy: a feeling of sadness, depression, and of being without hope, typically with no obvious cause mental: 1. related to or involving the mind 2. existing in the mind mercenary: 1. working or acting only for money or other reward 2. a professional soldier hired to serve in a foreign army, guerrilla organization, etc. merge: 1. to put two or more things together; to unite; to combine method: 1. a way of doing something 2. an approach 3. a technique meticulous: 1. extremely concerned with details 2. thorough and precise 3. finicky mettle: 1. resilience; stamina 2. fortitude and courage 3. the ability to deal with situations that are considered difficult 4. temperament migrate: 1. to move from one region or country to another migration: 1. the movement of people or animals from one reason to another, based on a variety of different reasons military: 1. related to soldiers, the army, or armed conflict 2. done or made by soldiers minimal: 1. the least or fewest possible 2. extremely small 3. negligible minimise: 1. to make something smaller 2. to reduce as much as possible in amount or degree 3. to make something seem less important minimum: 1. the smallest or least amount of something possible 2. the smallest size possible ministry: 1. a government department that is in charge of a specific task or subject 2. the job of being a preacher or a priest minor: 1. of little importance 2. small or secondary 3. not valuable 4. not serious minute: extremely small mire: 1. to entangle or trap 2. to cause to stick or get stuck 3. to soil or stain with mud mitigate: make something less severe, serious, painful, harmful, unpleasant, or bad mode: 1. a fashion 2. a way of doing something or performing a task modicum: 1. a limited amount of something 2. a small object 3. a reduced quantity modify: 1. to make changes to something 2. to adjust or alter momentous: 1. extremely important, especially in reference to the future or future events 2. weighty monitor: 1. to watch someone or something 2. to check on something or someone in order to detect changes 3. to supervise monotonous: 1. repetitive and boring 2. lacking variety 3. dull 4. wearisome morose: 1. austere and churlish 2. ill-tempered 3. bleak or dreary in nature 4. showing a gloomy attitude motivation: 1. the enthusiasm, interest or reason for doing something motive: 1. one of the reasons behind someone's behavior 2. something that inspires someone to behave in a certain way 3. a motif mundane: 1. ordinary and not interesting or exciting 2. relating to the world and practical matters instead of heavenly or spiritual ones; worldly; earthly mutual: 1. shared between two or more parties 2. held in common myriad: 1. a large number, often one that is too large to count 2. a great deal of people or things N nadir: 1. the point opposite the zenith on a sphere, directly below the observer 2. the lowest, worst point in a situation nascent: 1. emerging or beginning to exist 2. recently formed or started 3. developing navigable: 1. safe, wide, and deep enough to allow the passage or transit of ships 2. able to be directed or steered nefarious: extremely wicked; criminal; evil; immoral; sinful negate: 1. to deny something or say something isn't true 2. to cancel something out; to nullify negative: 1. pessimistic 2. harmful or bad 3. expressing or showing "no" 4. expressing disapproval negligence: 1. failure to take the proper amount of care in a specific situation, often causing damage or harm 2. the state or quality of being negligent 3. carelessness neophyte: 1. a newcomer to a specific belief; a proselyte 2. a person who has only recently started to participate in a subject or an activity nettle: 1. to bother or annoy 2. to provoke 3. to irritate or sting as if with nettles network: 1. a large system of smaller interconnected parts 2. a system of interconnected people or things 3. a group of people who are related in some way neutral: 1. impartial 2. not supporting either side involved in a conflict nevertheless: 1. in spite of 2. notwithstanding 3. however nomadic: 1. constantly moving from place to place without a fixed pattern 2. itinerant 3. pertaining to a wandering tribe nominal: 1. insignificant 2. in name, but not in practice 3. very small nonchalant: coolly unconcerned, indifferent, or unexcited; relaxed, calm, and not worried about anything; not displaying anxiety, interest, or enthusiasm nonetheless: 1. nevertheless 2. however norm: 1. a rule or standard 2. a pattern or something that is expected 3. a model nostalgia: 1. homesickness; a longing for one's home or hometown 2. a feeling of sadness and pleasure when thinking about events or things from the past; sentimentality notion: 1. an idea, belief or opinion about something notwithstanding: 1. in spite of 2. nevertheless 3. although novel: 1. new 2. different from anything that has previously existed 3. surprisingly new or unusual novice: a person who is new and not experienced in a job or situation noxious: 1. detrimental to living beings 2. something that is dangerous for one's physical health nuance: a small variation in meaning, tone or feeling nuclear: 1. related to or employing nuclear weapons or energy 2. related to the nucleus of an atom nullify: 1. to void something, especially a legal agreement or decision 2. to make something useless or null O objective: 1. fair and impartial 2. unbiased 3. based on facts and not affected by feelings 4. actual oblique: 1. possessing a slanting or sloping angle or direction; inclined 2. not expressing something in a clear or direct manner obliterate: 1. to totally destroy 2. to make something disappear completely 3. to get rid of, erase or cover completely oblivious: 1. unaware or not conscious about something happening at that moment 2. forgetful 3. inattentive obscure: 1. not famous or well-known 2. difficult to see 3. faint; vague 4. unnoticeable 5. mysterious obsequious: 1. overly attentive or eager to flatter others 2. excessive obedience or flattery, often in order to gain favors from people of influence obsession: 1. a person, object or idea that someone constantly thinks about 2. the state of being completely obsessed with something obsolete: 1. outdated or old-fashioned 2. no longer in use 3. antiquated obstinate: 1. unreasonably stubborn and unwilling to change one's opinion or attitude 2. troublesome to deal with, change or remove obtain: 1. to get 2. to acquire 3. to procure obtuse: annoyingly insensitive or slow to understand explanations or situations quickly obviate: anticipate and prevent or remove (a need, problem, difficulty, disadvantage, etc.) by effective measures so that action to deal with it becomes unnecessary obvious: 1. clear 2. easy to see 3. apparent 4. evident occupy: 1. to be inside something 2. to dwell in 3. to fill 4. to keep someone busy occur: 1. to take place 2. to happen 3. to exist odd: 1. unable to be divided by two 2. strange or uncommon 3. unexpected offset: 1. to balance or counteract something 2. to compensate ominous: 1. threatening or suggestive that something bad is going to occur 2. inauspicious ongoing: 1. continuing 2. happening at the present time 3. in progress opaque: 1. not letting light pass through; not transparent or translucent 2. difficult to understand or explain option: 1. the ability or right to choose 2. a choice or something that can be chosen opulent: 1. expensive and luxurious 2. very wealthy, rich, or affluent 3. richly supplied; abundant or plentiful orient: 1. to adapt something 2. to align something based on a specific point or direction 3. to direct towards a goal orientation: 1. the act of finding or determining one's position 2. a person or group's interests or beliefs 3. training for a job ornate: 1. elaborate or heavily adorned 2. marked by complex language and unusual vocabulary orthodox: 1. conventional or acceptable by the general public 2. traditional or old-fashioned in one's beliefs 3. a strict observer of a certain faith ostensible: 1. something apparent or professed to be true 2. something conspicuous and open to view ostentatious: 1. pretentious or showy display, as of wealth, knowledge, etc., in an attempt to attract attention, admiration, or envy 2. designed to impress oust: 1. to eject someone from a place or a role 2. to force someone out of a position outcome: 1. the result or consequence 2. the effect output: 1. production over a specific period of time 2. yield 3. energy or power produced by a system or machine overall: 1. comprehensive 2. all-inclusive 3. total 4. in general overlap: 1. a shared area of responsibility or interest 2. the amount in which two things cover a shared area 3. the period of time when two different things are occurring overseas: 1. abroad 2. in a foreign country oversight: 1. an accidental omission or mistake that often brings about problems 2.careful vigilance 3. surveillance overt: 1. transparent; done or displayed in public 2. not hidden 3. clear and apparent overwrought: 1. tired; fatigued 2. upset 3. nervous or worried 4. overly emotional 5. too ornate or complex P pacifist: 1. a person who is totally opposed to the use of violence or force 2. a person opposed to the military who refuses to participate in military activities pacify: 1. to ease a tense situation or someone's anger 2. to cause calm or peace to come to a previously tense situation 3. to put an end to violence or conflict painstaking: 1. performing or characterized by diligent and careful work, in which much attention is paid to detail 2. trying very hard to do something palatable: 1. tasty 2. fit to be consumed by humans 3. acceptable panacea: 1. a cure for any malady 2. something that people think will cure any difficulty or problem panel: 1. a board 2. a group of people who work together in order to make decisions, pass judgment or entertain people paradigm: 1. something that serves as an example or a model 2. accepted ideas or practices that are used in order to explain or view a shared reality paradox: 1. something that sounds untrue or impossible but might be possible or true 2. something that contradicts itself or has opposite qualities paragon: 1. someone or something that is perfect and is considered a model to be copied or imitated 2. the model of perfection or excellence paragraph: 1. a portion of a text that centers around one specific idea parallel: 1. not intersecting 2. occurring at the same time 3. extending in the same direction parameter: 1. a boundary that limits a specific action or process 2. a rule that controls something paramount: 1. supreme 2. more important than any other thing parasite: 1. any animal or plant that lives on and feeds on another animal or plant parody: 1. a work of art such as a text or a play which is created to poke fun at or ridicule another work 2. to poke fun at someone or something participate: 1. to be involved in something 2. to take part partisan: 1. strongly prejudiced in favor of something 2. one-sided or partial 3. someone who is devoted to a political party partner: 1. someone you are closely involved with 2. a person you are involved in a relationship with 3. one of the owners of a company passive: 1. inactive 2. complacent 3. submissive 4. inert pathos: 1. sadness or pity 2. the quality of something, such as a work of art, which arouses emotions such as pity or sadness patron: 1. a person who supports a group, activity or organization by donating money to them; a benefactor 2. a regular or frequent customer pedestrian: 1. ordinary; dull 2. commonplace 3. undistinguished penchant: 1. a clear inclination towards something 2. a taste for something perceive: 1. to become aware of 2. to observe; to notice percent: 1. out of one hundred 2. a part of one hundred perfunctory: 1. an action performed in a routine and careless manner 2. acting in a way which shows a lack of interest period: 1. an interval or length of time 2. a full stop peripheral: 1. something that is found on the outer edge or boundary 2. trivial or unimportant 3. something that is secondary or supplementary pernicious: 1. deadly 2. causing extreme harm, destruction or injury persist: 1. to persevere 2. to continue despite difficulty 3. to stand firm persistent: 1. unending; unstopping 2. constant 3. stubborn; not willing to give up perspective: 1. a vista or view 2. a way of looking at or examining something 3. an outlook pertinent: 1. relevant to the topic at hand 2. logically related to the matter 3. fitting perusal: 1. the act of carefully looking at or examining something 2. the attentive reading or study of something peruse: 1. to read something thoroughly 2. to examine something in detail 3. to skim something; to read something in a relaxed manner pervasive: 1. spread all over or spreading to all parts 2. present everywhere 3. permeating; penetrating phase: 1. a stage (of time) 2. a period of time in a person's life phenomenon: 1. an extraordinary person or thing 2. an observable fact or occurrence 3. something remarkable philosophy: 1. the study of human morals and behavior 2. ideas and theories about something 3. the way someone thinks about life 4. a theory or belief that guides someone's behavior phlegmatic: not easily upset, excited, or angered to action or display of emotion; apathetic; sluggish physical: 1. related to the body 2. related to something one can see and touch; tangible piety: 1. devoutness, love or reverence to God 2. devoutness shown through actions or one's daily life pinnacle: 1. the peak 2. the highest point 3. a tall and pointed formation 4. the most important or successful part of a person's life pious: 1. extremely religious 2. devout in one's religious beliefs 3. falsely devout or moral 4. dutiful to one's parents or other authority figures pivotal: 1. of extreme importance 2. critical; crucial 3. significant placate: make (someone) less angry or hostile, especially by making concessions or by being nice to them placebo: 1. a harmless substance that has no real affect on the person who takes it 2. something designed or done to placate the person who takes or receives it placid: 1. peaceful and undisturbed 2. serene, with a lack of movement or activity 3. showing calm plastic: (of substances or materials) capable of being molded or shaped platitude: 1. a trite, dull or unoriginal saying that is considered common information, despite the remark being said as if it were original information 2. absence of originality plausible: something that is credible and possibly true plethora: a large or excessive amount of (something), especially a larger amount than you need, want, or can deal with; overabundance; excess pliable: 1. malleable 2. flexible 3. easy to manipulate into other shapes plummet: 1. to fall suddenly or drastically 2. to plunge plus: 1. positive 2. higher than 3. extra or added policy: 1. a course of action decided upon by an organization, a group of people, a government or a political party 2. guidelines ponderous: 1. slow and clumsy because of great weight or size 2. very boring or dull 3. that seems heavy; bulky; massive portion: 1. a small part or section of something whole; a piece 2. the specific amount of food given to someone pose: 1. to take on a posture for artistic purposes 2. to formally ask a question 3. to cause a problem 4. to impersonate someone positive: 1. extremely certain, without any doubt 2. more than zero 3. hopeful or giving reasons to be so posterity: 1. future generations 2. one's descendants posthumous: 1. taking place after death 2. published after death postulate: 1. a prerequisite 2. something which is accepted as true before developing or discussing another idea 3. a basic principle potent: 1. extremely powerful or effective 2. influential 3. possessing great authority or power potential: 1. possible 2. able to occur 3. capable of developing or happening practice: the expected procedure or way of doing something practitioner: 1. a person engaged in a specific practice, such as medicine or law 2. a professional pragmatic: dealing or concerned with facts or actual practice in a reasonable and logical way instead of depending on ideas, theories or speculation; practical precarious: 1. something that is not certain 2. risky or subject to chance 3. something which lacks security and is in a possibly dangerous situation precede: 1. to exist before something 2. to come before 3. to have a higher rank than someone precedent: 1. a practice or act in the past which is used to justify a similar practice in the present preceding: 1. before 2. prior to precipice: 1. a very steep side of a mountain or cliff, typically a tall one 2. a dangerous situation that could lead to harm or failure 3. a very dangerous situation precipitate: 1. cause (something) to happen quickly, suddenly, unexpectedly, or prematurely before expected, warranted, needed, or desired 2. throw headlong; hurl downward 3. fall; fall downward suddenly and dramatically precise: 1. accurate; exact 2. meticulous or exacting preclude: 1. to make something impossible or prevent 2. to deter or impede something from happening precocious: 1. (especially of children) unusually advanced or mature in development, especially mental development 2. appearing or developing early precursor: a person or thing that goes before another person or something else and that often leads to or influences its development; forerunner; harbinger predecessor: 1. the previous occupant of a post or a role 2. something that comes before another related thing predicament: 1. a difficult, uncomfortable, embarrassing or dangerous situation that is often difficult to get out of predict: 1. to say that something is going to happen before it actually does 2. to foretell 3. to announce in advance predilection: 1. a personal preference towards something 2. a special liking of something predominant: 1. the most powerful 2. the most common 3. superior or supreme predominantly: 1. chiefly 2. mainly 3. principally preliminary: 1. introductory 2. leading up to the main event or thing prerogative: 1. a privilege or something that one is permitted to do that others aren't 2. an advantage 3. a right presume: 1. to believe something is true, despite not knowing whether or not it is 2. to act in a certain way, even though you don't have the right to behave that way presumption: 1. the act of assuming 2. something assumed 3. the act of believing something without seeing proof pretentious: trying to appear or sound as more impressive, successful, or important than someone really is, especially in matters of art and literature pretext: a false reason or motive that you pretend to have in order to hide your real reason or motive for doing something; excuse previous: 1. anterior 2. something coming or occurring before another event 3. prior primary: 1. fundamental; principal 2. basic 3. essential 4. happening first prime: 1. chief 2. most important 3. of the highest quality principal: 1. most important 2. main 3. first in rank or order principle: 1. a basic rule or law 2. a standard of behavior or morals prior: 1. coming before 2. preceding 3. previous or former priority: 1. something that is considered to be extremely important and has the ability to take place before other things 2. possessing the right to come before others pristine: 1. unspoiled; uncorrupted 2. new and in good condition 3. pure procedure: 1. a way of doing something 2. a medical treatment 3. course of action proceed: 1. to continue onward 2. to advance 3. to begin something process: 1. a series of happenings or actions that lead to a specific result 2. a naturally occurring series of changes procure: 1. obtain something, especially with care, effort, or difficulty 2. obtain (a sexual partner, especially woman) for another, for the purpose of prostitution prodigious: 1. very great or impressive in size, force, or extent; enormous 2. extraordinary; marvelous; wonderful; amazing profane: 1. to defile 2. to show a lack of respect for objects considered to be sacred or holy 3. to violate professional: 1. relating to or suitable for a specific profession 2. performing an activity to earn money instead of to relax or have fun 3. possessing the necessary qualities profound: 1. very deep 2. (of a state, quality, or emotion) very great 3. (of a disease or disability) very severe 4. (of a subject or idea) intellectually deep; entering far into subjects 5. (of a person or statement) having or showing deep thought or wisdom profuse: 1. created or given in large amounts; generous 2. plentiful 3. given abundantly or magnanimously prohibit: 1. to forbid or ban 2. to not allow or permit 3. to officially ban prohibitive: 1. something that discourages one from doing something 2. restricting people from doing something project: 1. a scheme or a plan 2. a proposal 3. a task which requires work to be done proletarian: 1. a member of the working class proliferate: 1. to increase or grow at a rapid pace 2. to multiply or reproduce quickly prolific: 1. producing a large amount of something, especially fruit, offspring or works 2. bountiful, fruitful or productive promote: 1. to raise in rank 2. to encourage or support 3. to encourage people to buy something 4. to give publicity to promulgate: 1. to put an official decree or law into effect via official announcement 2. to make something publicly known by officially announcing it propensity: 1. a tendency or natural inclination to behave in a certain way 2. a preference propitious: 1. likely to result in or show success 2. something advantageous 3. benevolent; favorable proportion: 1. the amount of something in relation to the whole 2. the comparative size or degree 3. the relation between size and number prospect: 1. the ability to do something, especially in the future 2. a possibility 3. chances or opportunities for success prospective: 1. something in the future that is expected or predicted to happen 2. probable or likely to happen prosperity: a successful, flourishing, or thriving condition, especially in financial respects; good fortune, wealth, success, etc. protocol: 1. the rules and regulations governing certain situations 2. a record of a transaction 3. a formal diplomatic agreement between two or more countries provincial: 1. from or related to a specific province 2. an unsophisticated person from the country 3. showing narrow-minded or unsophisticated thought or ideas prudent: 1. careful, and using good judgment in practical matters 2. careful in regard to one's own interests; provident 3. cautious or discreet in conduct; circumspect; not rash psychology: 1. the study of the human mind and human behavior publication: 1. something that's been published; printed matter 2. the process or act of making a book, magazine or newspaper available to the public publish: 1. to make a document available in digital or print format 2. to make something public or known purchase: 1. an object that has been bought 2. the act of buying something pursue: 1. to follow someone or something 2. to hunt for or look for Q quaint: 1. picturesque 2. old-fashioned 3. interesting or appealing yet quirky in an old-fashioned way qualitative: 1. relating to the quality of something quandary: 1. a dilemma or a problem 2. a state of uncertainty 3. a state of doubt or confusion quarantine: 1. forced isolation in which a person or an item is kept away from the public in order to avoid the spread of an infection quarry: 1. an open-air pit from which rock is excavated 2. a person or animal being hunted or searched for quell: 1. to suppress or stop something, especially through the use of force 2. to pacify or soothe a previously problematic situation querulous: often complaining, especially in a way that annoys other people quotation: 1. specific words that have been directly taken from a certain source 2. the act of using someone else's words quote: 1. to repeat someone else's words 2. to say something that has previously been said or written R radical: 1. extreme; drastic 2. supporting drastic changes 3. very important 4. new and different ramble: 1. to walk about or move about in an aimless manner 2. to follow a winding path 3. to write or talk in an aimless, uncontrolled manner 4. to stroll or walk for pleasure rampant: (of something bad) growing, happening, or spreading quickly and in an uncontrolled way random: 1. possessing no specific plan or structure 2. done by chance range: 1. a set of things that are similar 2. the upper and lower limits 3. the period of time in which something can happen rash: 1. not cautious 2. acting without pausing to think 3. reckless ratify: (especially of governments or organizations) make (a treaty, contract, or agreement) official by signing it or formally accepting it ratio: 1. a rate 2. the relationship between two numbers or amounts rational: 1. logical 2. using reason to make decisions or act 3. sensible raze: 1. completely destroy a city, building, etc. 2. scrape or shave off; erase react: 1. to respond to a stimulus 2. to act in opposition 3. to change in response to a specific stimulus reap: 1. cut (wheat, rye, etc.) with a scythe, sickle, or reaping machine 2. gather or take (a crop, harvest, etc.) by cutting 3. gain or obtain as the reward of one’s own or another’s action, conduct, work, etc. rebuke: 1. to punish or scold someone severely 2. to express disapproval, often in a sharp way 3. to harshly criticize rebuttal: the act of proving that something is not true by using arguments or evidence; response with contrary evidence recalcitrant: 1. (of a person ) stubbornly refusing to obey authority, discipline, rules, orders, etc. 2. (of an animal ) refusing to be controlled recant: formally or publicly say that your past beliefs or statements were wrong and that you no longer agree with them reclusive: living alone and avoiding the company of other people, often for religious meditation; solitary recover: 1. to get something back 2. to reclaim 3. to recuperate from an injury or illness rectify: 1. correct (something that is wrong) or make something right or better 2. correct by calculation or adjustment recuperate: 1. to get better or recover from illness, financial loss or misfortune redress: 1. compensation or remedy for some wrong that was done against someone; retribution 2. rectification redundant: 1. superfluous 2. unnecessarily wordy 3. not needed referendum: 1. a direct vote in which the general public votes on the answer to a specific question or issue 2. a note or letter from a diplomat to his or her home country, asking for instructions refine: 1. to purify; to take impurities out of something 2. to make changes in order to improve something refurbish: 1. to restore something to its original quality 2. to renovate 3. to make something look like new again refute: 1. to prove that something is not correct or true 2. to deny something regime: 1. a government that is currently in power 2. a system of rules 3. a political system 4. a management system region: 1. a specific part of the world; a large area of land where the people or land possesses similar characteristics 2. a district 3. a part of the body register: 1. to record something in writing 2. to enroll a student in a school 3. to express or show 4. to convey regulate: 1. to create and impose rules for something 2. to adjust to ensure accuracy 3. to control; to manage reinforce: 1. to make something stronger 2. to enhance something 3. to support an idea by giving evidence or reasons reject: 1. to refuse something 2. to turn something down 3. to decline relax: 1. to stop doing something in order to rest 2. to slacken or make less rigid 3. to make less severe 4. to calm relaxed: 1. not strict 2. free 3. calm 4. informal release: 1. to let go or free 2. to emancipate 3. to allow something to flow freely 4. to make information available to the public relegate: 1. put (someone or something) into a lower or less important rank or position 2. refer, commit, or hand over for decision, action, etc. 3. (UK) moved down to a lower division relevant: 1. related to the issue being discussed or debated 2. pertinent 3. connected to an issue reliance: 1. a dependence on a specific person or object 2. the act of depending on someone or something relinquish: 1. give up (something, such as power, control, or possession), especially when you do not want to do this; retire from; abandon 2. surrender 3. let go (a grasp, hold, etc.) reluctance: 1. unwillingness or hesitancy to do something reluctant: 1. unwilling to do something 2. uneager to do something rely: 1. to depend on 2. to trust 3. to have confidence in remorse: 1. strong pain or sadness about something you have done and feel guilty about 2. regret remove: 1. to get rid of 2. to take away 3. to take off 4. to send away renounce: 1. give up (a claim, right, or possession, etc.), especially by formal announcement 2. give up (a cause, bad habit, way of life, etc.) voluntarily 3. reject; disown renovation: 1. restore to an earlier condition by making changes and repairs, especially an old house, building, room, etc. 2. reinvigorate; refresh; revive reprehensible: unacceptable, very bad, and deserving to be criticized reprieve: 1. a way out of,or temporary relief from a bad experience or situation 2. the deferment or complete cancellation of punishment reprimand: a severe, formal, or official rebuke, disapproval, or censure reproach: express disapproval of, criticism of, or disappointment in (someone), especially for not being successful or not doing what is expected repudiate: 1. refuse to accept or reject with denial 2. disown require: 1. to make something obligatory 2. to expect 3. to need something rescind: end, revoke, repeal, or cancel (a law, agreement, order, or decision, etc.) research: 1. to investigate 2. to make inquiries in order to find out information 3. to carefully study something in order to find out new information reside: 1. to inhabit 2. to live in a certain place 3. to exist resident: 1. someone who lives in a certain place or region 2. an inhabitant resignation: 1. the act of leaving a job or position by formally resigning 2. the formal, often written, declaration that one is leaving a job or post resilient: (of a substance or object) bouncing or springing back into shape, position, etc. after being pulled, stretched, pressed, bent, etc. 2. able to quickly become strong, healthy, happy, or successful again after an illness, disappointment, or other problem resolution: 1. a decision that is made by a group through a voting process 2. a personal promise to oneself 3. a formal statement of intent or opinion resolve: 1. firm or strong determination 2. a resolution made by a legislative body; a ruling resonant: 1. prompting thoughts of a similar experience 2. loud, clear, or deep 3. enduring 4. echoing resource: 1. material used to do or make something 2. a supply of something that can be used when required 3. a country's tools for generating wealth respite: 1. a short break or delay from work or an unpleasant experience 2. a postponement of punishment respond: 1. to answer 2. to react in a favorable way restore: 1. to bring something back to its original condition 2. to make something new again restrain: 1. to hold back or put limits on someone or something 2. to curb 3. to keep under control restrict: 1. to limit 2. to physically confine 3. to keep under control retain: 1. to remember information 2. to hold or keep someone or something 3. to hire someone by paying them an initial fee reticent: 1. not willing to tell people about one's thoughts, feelings, and personal affairs 2. uncommunicative, restrained, or reserved in style 3. reluctant; unwilling reveal: 1. to show or disclose 2. to divulge 3. to make known revenue: 1. income 2. money that an organization, government or company receives from different sources reverence: a feeling or attitude of deep respect, admiration, love, and awe for someone or something reverent: feeling, showing, or characterized by great respect and admiration; deeply respectful reverse: 1. to overturn 2. to send in the opposite direction 3. to move backwards revise: 1. to check something and make changes to make sure that it is acceptable 2. to change or amend 3. to alter revision: 1. a modification or edit of something 2. the act of looking over something that one has done revolution: 1. a huge change in something, such as a political organization or country 2. the circular movement around a certain celestial body 3. a complete cycle 4. a very important change in the way people act rhetoric: 1. a style of speaking or writing that is intended to influence people and that may not be honest or reasonable 2. the art, skill, or study of using language formally and effectively in speaking or writing rhetorical: of, relating to, or concerned with the art of speaking or writing that is effective or intended to influence, persuade, or impress people and that may not be honest or reasonable rife: 1. prevalent or abundant 2. widespread; common 3. full of (something) rigid: 1. stiff 2. hard 3. unyielding or not able to be bent 4. unable to be changed or modified rigor: 1. strictness, harshness, or severity 2. exactitude 3. inflexibility robust: 1. healthy 2. hardy or strong 3. sturdy and able to withstand detrimental conditions 4. successful role: 1. the part that a performer in theater acts out 2. one's proper function in society 3. a person's function rouse: 1. wake (someone) from sleep 2. cause (someone who is tired, lazy, or unwilling to do something) to become active 3. make angry or excited, as to anger or action; stir up 4. (nautical) pull or haul strongly and all together, especially by hand route: 1. a course or path of travel 2. a course that certain forms of transport follow habitually 3. a way of achieving something S salient: 1. of utmost importance; prominent; notable 2. protruding beyond a line or surface 3. jumping sanction: 1. official permission or approval, as for an action 2. a threat to punish someone for breaking a law or rule 3. an official order, such as the limiting or stopping of trade, that is taken against a country in order to force it to obey international laws sanguine: cheerfully optimistic, hopeful, or confident, especially in a difficult situation satire: the use of humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticize someone or something and make them seem foolish, weak, bad, etc. saturate: 1. make something completely wet with water or other liquid so that no more can be absorbed 2. cause (a substance) to combine with, dissolve, or hold the greatest possible amount of another substance scale: 1. to climb a surface that is steep 2. to set something according to a scale or measure something by a scale 3. to remove something in layers or scales scapegoat: 1. a person who is blamed in place of others for something that is not their fault or doing scenario: 1. a possible situation 2. a written description or outline of a play, movie or other theater-based work schedule: 1. to arrange for something; to make arrangements 2. to plan for something 3. to make plans scheme: 1. an elaborate plan that is devised in order to gain something and, often, trick people 2. an official plan scope: the range of one's perceptions, thoughts, or actions; extent; bound scrupulous: 1. very careful about doing something correctly, giving a lot of attention to details 2. careful about doing what is honest and morally right scrutinize: examine or inspect (something) closely, thoroughly, and very carefully scurrilous: 1. fond of using coarse or indecent language 2. foul mouthed or obscene 3. slanderous section: 1. a piece of something 2. a part of a whole object 3. a smaller part of a book or a newspaper sector: 1. a division of a society or an economy 2. a part of something that is different from others secure: 1. safe 2. free from danger or worry 3. strong or stable security: 1. safety 2. a general freedom from risks seek: 1. to look for 2. to try and discover 3. to search for 4. to try to obtain (permission, etc.) select: 1. preferred 2. of a special value or importance 3. exclusive 4. discriminating 5. only the best sequence: 1. the order or pattern in which things happen or take place 2. a set of things that is put in a specific order serendipity: 1. the fact of finding interesting or valuable things by chance; unexpected and fortunate discoveries 2. accidental good fortune or luck serene: 1. tranquil, peaceful or calm 2. bright or clear 3. untroubled or unaffected series: 1. a sequence of things 2. a set of related objects 3. a collection of episodes of a television show that use the same characters in different situations shift: 1. a slight change in something 2. a change 3. a period of approximately eight hours during which workers perform their jobs shrewd: having or showing sharp powers to understand things and to make good judgments in practical affairs; astute shroud: 1. something that covers or hides something; hide from view 2. a cloth used to wrap a body for burial; wrap for burial 3. take shelter or harbor significant: 1. quite important 2. suggesting or showing a meaning 3. noticeable or detectable 4. noteworthy similar: 1. related to something else 2. nearly the same, but not exactly the same 3. comparable simile: (the use of) a phrase that describes something by comparing it to something else, always including the words 'as' or 'like' simulate: 1. to reproduce a situation 2. to feign 3. to do something that looks as if it is real when it truly is not site: 1. a place where something can be found or where something is located skeptical: 1. having, showing or marked by doubt 2. doubting 3. questioning skirmish: 1. a short or small battle 2. a minor fight in a much larger conflict 3. a squabble or a short argument slight: 1. small in size, degree, or amount 2. treat with disrespect or indifference; treat as unimportant sole: 1. the bottom part of a foot or shoe 2. the bottom part of an object such as a golf club or a plow solely: 1. exclusively 2. alone; not involving anyone or anything else 3. exclusively solicit: 1. to ask for something, often through a formal process 2. to petition solicitous: 1. showing care, attention, or concern about someone's health, feelings, safety, etc. 2. showing anxious desire; eager somber: 1. very sad and serious; gloomy; depressing or grave 2. dull or dark in color, especially grey or black somewhat: 1. slightly 2. a little bit 3. to a certain degree source: 1. the place in which something originates or which someone comes from 2. a point or place of origin 3. a person who provides information sparse: 1. not dense or thick 2. small in amount and not dense or crowded 3. scanty specific: 1. clear and precise 2. special 3. particular; relating to one specific person, group or thing 4. unique specified: 1. defined 2. thoroughly commented or explained 3. expressly stated specify: 1. to designate 2. to state in an explicit manner 3. to be specific sphere: 1. a globe; a ball shaped object 2. an area of knowledge, study or expertise spontaneous: 1. happening or done in a natural, often sudden way, without being planned or thought about 2. growing without cultivation or human labor, as plants and fruits sporadic: 1. occurring at irregular intervals; not constant or regular; patternless 2. appearing singly or at widely scattered localities, as a plant or disease spurious: 1. not genuine, authentic, or true; counterfeit 2. based on false ideas or bad reasoning squander: spend or use (money, time, supplies, or an opportunity) wastefully or extravagantly stability: 1. balance 2. firmness of position 2. being unlikely to change stable: 1. constant 2. unwavering 3. strongly fixed 4. firmly established stagnant: 1. (of water or air ) not flowing or moving, and often smells bad 2. not active, changing, or progressing staid: of a settled, unadventurous, sedate, and steady but boring character static: not moving, acting, or progressing, especially in an undesirable or uninteresting way statistic: 1. a numerical fact 2. the use of numbers to explain a situation statistics: 1. a field of study that collects and analyzes data 2. the data collected and what it means status: 1. one's standing in relation to others 2. one's position in society 3. a state of things or events staunch: very committed or loyal to a person, belief, or cause steadfast: 1. very committed or loyal to a person, belief, or cause 2. not changing, fickle, or wavering; constant stereotype: 1. an oversimplified way of looking at something 2. a simple and unwavering idea about what a certain person or group of people are like stock: 1. the supply of goods or merchandise available for sale or distribution in a store or warehouse 2. a supply of something for future use or sale 3. the shares of a particular company or corporation stoic: 1. not showing emotion or complaining, even when something bad happens 2. unemotional 3. indifferent to pleasure and pain straightforward: 1. clear and easy to understand 2. frank; honest 3. direct strategy: 1. a detailed plan of action 2. a way to approach a specific goal stress: 1. the pressure exerted on a physical object 2. emotional stress or anxiety caused by a difficult situation 3. emphasis placed on something stringent: 1. strict, rigid 2. binding 3. constraining 4. extremely limiting structure: 1. a free-standing building made from different parts 2. the way in which something is organized 3. the quality of being organized style: 1. a way of doing or expressing something 2. fashion 3. quality or attractiveness in design submit: 1. to hand in or present something to a teacher, boss or other other person 2. to permit someone to exercise control over you 3. to surrender to authority subordinate: 1. from a lower rank or position 2. inferior 3. less important subsequent: 1. following 2. succeeding 3. happening after something else subsidiary: 1. secondary 2. used to supplement something or someone 3. auxiliary subsidy: 1. money that a government gives a group to help it 2. financial assistance substantiate: 1. support with proof or evidence 2. give concrete form or body to; convert into substance; embody 3. give substance to; make real or actual substitute: 1. to temporarily replace someone or something with something else 2. to exchange one thing for another subtle: 1. thin, tenuous, or rarefied, as a fluid or an odor 2. not obvious, and so slight as to be difficult to notice, see, detect, or describe 3. able to make fine distinctions 4. making use of clever and indirect methods to achieve something successive: 1. consecutive 2. following 3. sequential successor: 1. a person who takes over for another person after they have left 2. someone or something that follows another succinct: 1. concise and clearly expressed 2. expressed in a short and easy to understand way sufficient: 1. enough as necessary 2. adequate suffragist: 1. a person who fights in favor of granting voting rights to people who do not have them, especially women sum: 1. the total of a calculation 2. an amount of money 3. the total amount of something in existence summary: 1. an explanation of something giving the main points or ideas of the original document or argument 2. a recapitulation superficial: 1. being at, on, or near the surface 2. shallow; not profound or thorough superfluous: being more than is needed, useful, or wanted; surplus; excessive supplant: remove or uproot (someone or something that is old or no longer used or accepted) in order to replace with (more powerful) someone or something else supplement: 1. to add to something, especially in order to make up for a deficiency 2. an addition 3. something added to make something complete supplementary: 1. used in order to complete something 2. additional suppress: 1. end or stop (something) by force 2. keep (something) secret; keep from appearing or being known, published, etc. 3. stop yourself feeling, showing, or being affected by an emotion surfeit: 1. an excessive or too large amount or supply of something 2. overeat or feed to excess 3. disgust caused by excess surmise: 1. to draw a conclusion or guess, usually with little to no proof or evidence 2. to conjecture surreptitious: 1. obtained, done, or made in a secret, stealthy way, especially because it would not be approved of; clandestine; secret or unauthorized 2. acting in a secret, stealthy way survey: 1. a poll used to measure public opinion or the incidence of something in a society 2. an examination of a subject or a situation 3. a careful examination of land in order to map it survive: 1. to live through an event 2. to stay alive 3. to continue to exist 4. to outlive someone susceptible: 1. easily influenced or harmed by something 2. (of a person) easily affected emotionally; sensitive 3. a person who is vulnerable to being infected by a certain disease, or to be affected by it more severely than others are suspect: 1. to distrust someone or something 2. to think that someone or something is responsible for a specific action or something bad suspend: 1. to delay something 2. to postpone 3. to stop something temporarily or permanently 4. to hang something in the air sustain: 1. to bear or to hold 2. to support 3. to keep something alive 4. to provide for 5. to deal with sycophant: a self-seeking person who attempts to win favor by flattering rich or influential people symbol: 1. a sign 2. a shape, object or picture which is used to represent something 3. something used to represent or show an idea T tacit: 1. expressed or understood without being directly said or expressed; implied 2. unspoken; silent taciturn: tending not to speak much; not liking to talk; uncommunicative tactful: careful not to say or do anything that could offend or upset other people tangential: 1. slightly or indirectly related to what you are doing, discussing, or thinking about; not closely connected to something 2. merely touching; slightly connected; peripheral tangible: 1. palpable 2. able to be felt or touched 3. real tape: 1. a long, thin strip of material which can be used for a variety of purposes: to show a location, to stick objects together, to serve as a finish line, etc. 2. a cassette or video recorded on a strip of material coated in a magnetic covering target: 1. a goal 2. an object that is shot at 3. an objective 4. something that one wants to achieve task: 1. to assign a job to someone 2. to place a burden on someone team: 1. a group of people that work toward a common goal 2. two or more animals that work together to pull something technical: 1. mechanical 2. specialized 3. having or requiring specialized knowledge technique: 1. a way of performing a specific task 2. a method of doing something or carrying out a task 3. a technical skill technology: 1. the use of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, with special reference to its use in industry 2. applied sciences teem: 1. be full of things; abound or swarm; move in large numbers 2. be present in large quantity temerity: 1. recklessness or disregard for danger or consequences 2. foolish boldness 3. audacity temper: 1. to neutralize or relax something 2. to moderate 3. to cause a substance to reach its desired consistency or hardness, often by putting it through a heating and cooling process temperate: 1. emotionally calm and controlled 2. not extreme in behavior or language 3. (of weather conditions) neither very hot nor very cold temporary: 1. limited 2. not lasting or permanent 3. passing 4. brief tenacious: 1. holding firmly 2. that clings; adhesive; sticky 3. holding together firmly; cohesive 4. very determined to do something; persistent; stubborn tense: 1. tight 2. pulled to its limit 3. nervous or stressed 4. rigid tension: 1. a feeling of nervousness before something 2. a feeling of anger or hostility between two or more people 3. the degree to which a string, rope or wire is tensed tentative: 1. provisional 2. not fixed or positive 3. experimental 4. hesitant or without confidence; uncertain terminate: 1. to stop 2. to put an end to 3. to sack or fire 4. to conclude termination: 1. the conclusion to or end of something 2. the act of ending something terse: 1. short or curt, often in a way that is interpreted as unfriendly 2. concise and to the point text: 1. a piece of writing such as a book 2. all the words that were said in a speech 3. written words theme: 1. the topic or subject discussed in a book, essay, conversation, debate, etc. 2. a subject that is brought up frequently 3. the style upon which something is based theory: 1. a hypothesis 2. an idea that tries to explain something 3. an idea used to justify or explain something therapeutic: 1. possessing curative powers 2. used to make someone healthier or happier 3. producing a positive effect on the body or mind thereby: 1. because of 2. thus 3. as a result thesis: 1. the subject to be written about or debated in an essay 2. a long study written while one is studying one's doctoral degree 3. the main idea of a written work thwart: 1. to prevent something from happening 2. to hinder, frustrate or foil timorous: 1. lacking confidence or nervous 2. showing fear 3. demonstrating timidness topic: 1. a subject that is currently being examined or discussed in a conversation, book, essay, article, etc. 2. a theme tout: 1. try to persuade people to like, accept, or buy something by praising or recommending highly and repeatedly, especially loudly and in public 2. (British) buy tickets for an event and resell them at a much higher price trace: 1. to follow or to track 2. to find the starting point of something 3. to copy a drawing by placing a piece of paper over the original and following the lines one can see through the paper tradition: 1. heritage 2. behavior and customs that are passed from one generation to the next 3. an old custom tranquil: 1. calm 2. relaxed 3. free from disturbances 4. quiet transfer: 1. moving something from one place to another 2. an exchange 3. giving property or financial holdings to another person transform: 1. to change something 2. to convert 3. to totally change something in an attempt to make it more attractive or improve it transformation: 1. a major change in something or someone 2. a change into something entirely different 3. the process of changing into something totally different transgress: 1. to surpass the limits of what is considered by society to be acceptable 2. to sin 3. to go beyond transient: existing, happening, or staying somewhere for only a short time; temporary transit: 1. the act of passing through a certain location 2. a public system of transportation 3. the act of moving people or goods from one place to another transition: 1. the conversion from one state to another 2. to cause someone or something to convert from one state to another transmission: 1. the act of sending out a message or broadcasting a message 2. the act of passing something from one person to another transmit: 1. to convey 2. to send across 3. to communicate or broadcast 4. to give a virus or illness to others 5. to pass from one person to another transport: 1. to carry something 2. to bring something from one point to another 3. to move goods or people using vehicles traverse: 1. to move across or through 2. to cross 3. to extend across treatise: a formal, usually lengthy, book or piece of writing about a particular subject trend: 1. the general direction in which something is moving or the way people are behaving 2. a fashion 3. a tendency tribulation: 1. a great trouble, difficulty, or suffering 2. something that causes great trouble, difficulty, or suffering trifling: of very little value or importance; trivial; insignificant trigger: 1. to bring about 2. to cause 3. to set something off 4. to make something happen trivial: 1. of no real importance 2. ordinary 3. insignificant or minor truant: 1. a student who avoids school without permission 2. a lazy person 3. a person who avoids or neglects his or her work duties truculent: easily annoyed or angered and always ready, eager or quick to argue or fight tumult: 1. a loud noise that is produced by a large group of people 2. a violent or turbulent uprising; a riot 3. Confusion U ubiquitous: present, or seeming to be present everywhere, especially at the same time; omnipresent ultimate: 1. last 2. found at the end of something 3. the best or the worst of something 4. the most extreme ultimately: 1. finally 2. in the end 3. at last umbrage: to be displeased, offended or annoyed by what someone has said or done undergo: 1. to go through a certain procedure or experience 2. to experience something 3. to endure 4. to suffer something underlie: 1. to serve as a basis for 2. to be a strong influence on 3. to be situated below something underlying: 1. fundamental 2. lying beneath 3. basic undertake: 1. to agree to do something 2. to begin something, especially a long and difficult process 3. to pledge to do something unequivocal: 1. clear and easy to understand or see 2. without doubt 3. unambiguous ungainly: (of a person or movement) awkward; clumsy; not moving in an attractive or graceful way uniform: 1. a set of clothes that must be worn to be in a specific school or do a specific job 2. an outfit worn by people from a same school or doing the same job unify: 1. to join two or more units together in order to create a newer, larger unit 2. to combine 3. to consolidate unique: 1. special 2. being the only one of its kind 3. unparalleled 4. extraordinary unprecedented: 1. new and never been seen or done before 2. without precedent upshot: 1. the outcome or result 2. the main idea; the gist 3. the conclusion utilise: 1. to employ something 2. to use something 3. to put to use for a specific purpose utility: 1. a public service 2. something useful to the public 3. usefulness utter: Complete V vacuous: 1. having or showing a lack of intelligence, interest, purpose, or thought 2. without contents, meaning, importance, or substance; empty valid: 1. sound 2. binding 3. well-grounded 4. effective 5. possessing legal force validity: 1. well grounded 2. the state of being valid 3. having legal force vanquish: completely defeat in a contest, conflict, or competition variegated: 1. marked with different and varied colors, stripes, spots or other markings 2. diversified or varied vary: 1. to change 2. to fluctuate 3. to alter 4. to differ vehement: 1. powerful 2. forceful 3. intense; impassioned 4. expressing strong feelings and great energy vehicle: 1. any device which is used to transport one or more people around 2. a means or way of expressing a certain idea venerable: deserving respect, especially because of age, wisdom, character, long use, etc. venerate: regard or treat (someone or something ) with great respect version: 1. an individual's view about something that happened 2. an adaptation 3. a form of a book or other object that is slightly different from other books or objects vex: make someone angry, annoyed, confused, or worried, especially with trivial matters via: 1. by way of or through vigilant: carefully watchful and alert to detect and avoid possible danger or difficulties vindicate: 1. clear from criticism, blame, guilt, suspicion, etc. with supporting arguments or proof 2. defend or maintain (a cause, claim, etc.) against opposition violate: 1. to infringe on 2. to profane 3. to break a promise or a law 4. to do harm virtual: 1. not existing in the real, physical world 2. created by a computer or the internet 3. nearly (the thing mentioned) 4. imaginary virtually: 1. essentially 2. almost 3. just about virulent: 1. (of a disease or poison) extremely infectious, malignant, or poisonous; deadly 2. (of a pathogen, especially a virus) highly infective 3. bitterly hostile or antagonistic; full of hate and violent opposition viscous: (of liquids) thick and sticky and does not flow easily visible: 1. able to be seen 2. frequently seen in public; conspicuous 3. obvious vision: 1. sight 2. the ability to see 3. a mental image 4. something or someone considered to be extremely beautiful visual: 1. capable of being seen with one's naked eye 2. related to sight 3. relating to things that can be seen vital: 1. necessary for life 2. related to life 3. showing great energy or liveliness 4. of great importance; crucial vocation: a particular occupation, business, or profession, especially one for which a person is particularly suited or qualified vociferous: 1. highly opinionated and loud about one's beliefs 2. clamorous or offensively loud volatile: 1. (of a substance) vaporizing or evaporating quickly 2. likely to change suddenly and unexpectedly or suddenly become violent or angry; unstable; explosive voluble: 1. talkative; speaking with enthusiasm 2. fluent 3. expressed in many words 4. garrulous volume: 1. the amount of space taken up by something 2. an amount of something 3. the sound level voluntary: 1. not obligatory 2. unenforced 3. given or done by choice voracious: 1. consuming or eager to consume very large amounts of food 2. very eager in some desire, activity or pursuit W waive: 1. to defer something 2. to relinquish a right to something 3. to not enforce something 4. to put aside wane: 1. to decline in power 2. to lose strength or intensity 3. to approach the end 4. to ebb or dwindle waning: decreasing gradually in size, amount, intensity, degree, or quality wanton: 1. a cruel, malicious or violent action done, shown, used deliberately, unprovokedly and unjustifiably 2. careless; reckless wary: cautious or nervous about possible dangers or problems; watchful waver: 1. be undecided between two opinions, possibilities, or courses of action or you keep choosing one way and then the other 2. become unsteady because of weakness, emotion, tiredness, etc. wax: 1. to get larger or increase in size 2. to become stronger 3. to put wax on a surface 4. to express oneself welfare: 1. the well-being of a person or people 2. financial aid from a government to a person in need whereas: 1. in contrast to the fact that 2. although 3. since whereby: 1. by which widespread: 1. able to be found in many different locations 2. extensive 3. popular 4. occupying a wide space wrath: 1. extreme anger 2. vengeance or punishment as the consequence of anger wretched: 1. very unpleasant, unhappy, ill, or unfortunate state or in very bad condition 2. poor in quality or ability; very inferior Z zeal: great energy, effort, and enthusiasm, as in working for a person, cause, or object zenith: 1. the point in the sky that's directly over one's head 2. the highest point or peak MD.FAKHRUDDIN BABAR,LECTURER IN ENGLISH, PHONE-77805633

Greetings Hello, everyone. Good morning, everybody. Good afternoon, class. Hello there, Tom. Good afternoon, everybody. How are you today? How are you getting on? How’s life? How are things with you? Are you feeling better today, David? What a lovely day! What a rainy day! Today is very cold, isn’t it? Introductions My name is Mr/Mrs/Ms Smith. I’ll be teaching you English this year. I’m your new English teacher. I’ve got five lessons with you each week. Time to begin Let’s begin today’s lesson. Let’s begin our lesson now. I hope you are all ready for your English lesson. I think we can start now. Is everybody ready to start? Now we can get down to work. It’s time to begin, please stop talking. I’m waiting for you to be quiet. Settle down now so we can start. We won’t start until everyone is quiet. Stop talking and be quiet. Put your things away Pack your things away. Close your books. Put your books away. Register Who isn’t here today? Who is absent today? Why were you absent last Friday, Tom? What’s the matter with Anna today? What’s wrong with Anna today? Late We started ten minutes ago. What have you been doing? Did you oversleep? Don’t let it happen again. Where have you been? Did you miss your bus? DURING THE LESSON | Classroom English Classroom English | Common instructions Instructions can be used at the beginning of a session Are you ready? Everybody … Pay attention, everybody. Open your books at page… You need pencils/rulers. We’ll learn how to … You have five minutes to do this. Turn to page … Look at activity five. Listen to this tape. Repeat after me. Again, please. Who’s next? Like this, not like that. Comprehension language Do you get it? Are you with me? Are you OK? Do you follow me? OK so far? Do you understand? What did you say? One more time, please. Say it again, please. Like this? Is this OK? Other common instructions Come in. Go out. Stand by your desks. Stand up. Sit down. Come to the front of the class. Put your hands up. Put your hands down. Hold your books/pens up. Show me your pencil. Classroom English | Classroom management Giving instructions Open your books at page 75. I want you all to join in. The whole class, please. All together now. Come out and write it on the board. Listen to the tape, please. Get into groups of four. Finish off this song at home. Everybody, please. Could you try the next one? I would like you to write this down. Would you mind switching the lights on? It might be an idea to leave this till next time. Who would like to read? Which topic will your group report on? Do you want to answer question 4? Can you all see the board? Sequencing First/ First of all, today, … After that/ Then Right. Now we will go on to the next exercise. Have you finished? For the last thing today, let’s … Whose turn is it to read? Which question are you on? Next/ Next one, please. Who hasn’t answered yet? Let me explain what I want you to do next. The idea of this exercise is for you to … You have ten minutes to do this. Your time is up. Finish this by twenty to eleven. Have you found the place? Are you all ready? Supervision Stop talking. Look this way. Listen to what … is saying. Leave that alone now. Be careful. Questions Any questions? Do you have any questions? Now I’m going to ask you some questions. Who knows the answer? Raise your hand. Please raise your hand if you don’t understand. Try to answer by yourself. Try again. A full sentence, please. Use a full sentence please. Make a sentence. Say it in a loud voice. Louder, please! Again, please. Responding to questions Yes, that’s right, Fine. Almost. Try again. What about this word? Reference As I said earlier, … While we’re on the subject, … In the background you can see … The church was started in the last century. This is a picture of a typically English castle. Let me sum up. Encouragement That’s interesting! That really is very kind of you. Don’t worry about it. Don’t worry, I’m sure you’ll do better next time. I’m really impressed. I knew you could do it! Have a go! Have another try! Practise makes perfect. Good! Excellent! Well done! That’s great! That’ much better! You’re really improving. Your marks will get better if you practise more. Stop making excuses. Don’t pretend you can’t speak English, I know you can. Your marks are getting better all the time. Classroom English | Error correction Giving feedback to students Magnificent! Right! Fine. Very good. That’s very good. Great stuff! Well done. That’s it. Yes! Yes, you’ve got it. Fantastic! Very fine. That’s nice. I like that. Marvellous! You did a great job. Terrific! Wow! That’s correct. Quite right That’s right. That’s quite right. It depends. That’s much better. In a way, perhaps. You’ve improved a lot. Sort of, yes. That’s more like it. It might be, I suppose. That’s a lot better. You’re on the right lines (UK). There’s no hurry. Have a guess. That’s almost it. You’re halfway there. You’ve almost got it. You were almost right. There’s no need to rush. We have plenty of time Unfortunately not. I’m afraid that’s not quite right. Not quite right. Try again. Good try, but not quite right. You can’t say that, I’m afraid. You can’t use that word here. Have another try. Not really. Not exactly. Classroom English | Special situations Happy birthday! Merry Christmas! I hope you all have a good Christmas. Happy New Year! All the best for the New Year. Happy Easter. Tom has his 11th birthday today. Anna is eleven today. Let’s sing “Happy Birthday”. Cheerio now. God bless! Have a nice weekend. Thanks for your help. Best of luck. Good luck. I hope you pass. Congratulations! Well done! Hard lines! Never mind. Better luck next time. Do you feel better today? Are you better now? Have you been ill? What was the matter? I’ll be back in a moment. Carry on with the exercise while I’m away. I’ve got to go next door for a moment. I’m afraid I can’t speak any louder. I seem to be losing my voice. I have a headache. I’m feeling under the weather. Do you mind if I sit down? I have a sore throat. THE END OF THE LESSON | Classroom English Time to stop Let’s stop now. It’s time to finish now. It’s almost time to stop. I’m afraid it’s time to finish now. We’ve run out of time. We’ll have to stop here. There’s the bell. It’s time to stop. That’s all for today. You can go now. Have you finished? Stop now. Any questions? Collect your work please. Pack up your books. One minute to finish that activity. It’s nearly time to go. Are your desks tidy? Don’t forget to bring your … tomorrow. The next class is waiting (outside/ to come in) You’ll be late for your next class (if you don’t stop now) We’ll have to finish this tomorrow/ in the next lesson Look at the time/ What time is it now? That’s all (we have time) for today. Not time to stop The bell hasn’t gone yet. The lesson doesn’t finish till ten past. Hang on a moment. We seem to have finished early. Just a moment, please. Just a sec/ Just a second/ Wait for it! There are still three minutes to go. Just hold on a moment. One more thing before you go. We still have a couple of minutes left. Your watch must be fast. We have an extra five minutes. Sit quietly until the bell goes. Tom, you have to stay five extra minutes (as I told you earlier/ because you…) Back to your places. Stay where you are for a moment. Homework Remember your homework. Take a worksheet as you leave. What do you have to do before the next lesson? This is your homework for tonight. Finish this exercise Do the next exercise tonight, and we’ll check it tomorrow. Prepare the next chapter for Tuesday. Do exercise 5 on page 36 for your homework. There is no homework today. There is no homework tonight (but there will be tomorrow) Next time The next class starts at 7 o’clock. We’ll do the rest of this chapter next time. We’ve run out of time, so we’ll continue next lesson. We’ll continue this chapter next Monday. We’ll do some more practice of this in the next class. We’ll finish this exercise next lesson. We’re going to continue with this tomorrow, so please sit together again. Goodbye Goodbye, everyone. See you again next Thursday/ next week/ tomorrow/ on Monday Have a good holiday. Enjoy your vacation. See you tomorrow afternoon. Stand up and say goodbye to the class, please See you in room 8 after the break. Leaving the room Form a queue (UK) and wait for the bell. Get into a queue (UK). Be quiet as you leave. Other classes are still working. Try not to make any noise as you leave. It’s tidy up time Everybody outside! All of you get outside now! Hurry up and get out! Line up

Essential Words for SAT A abase (v.) to humiliate, degrade (After being overthrown and abased, the deposed leader offered to bow down to his conqueror.) abate (v.) to reduce, lessen (The rain poured down for a while, then abated.) abdicate (v.) to give up a position, usually one of leadership (When he realized that the revolutionaries would surely win, the king abdicated his throne.) abduct (v.) to kidnap, take by force (The evildoers abducted the fairy princess from her happy home.) aberration (n.) something that differs from the norm (In 1918, the Boston Red Sox won the World Series, but the success turned out to be an aberration, and the Red Sox have not won a World Series since.) abet (v.) to aid, help, encourage (The spy succeeded only because he had a friend on the inside to abet him.) abhor (v.) to hate, detest (Because he always wound up kicking himself in the head when he tried to play soccer, Oswald began to abhor the sport.) abide 1. (v.) to put up with (Though he did not agree with the decision, Chuck decided to abide by it.) 2. (v.) to remain (Despite the beating they’ve taken from the weather throughout the millennia, the mountains abide.) abject (adj.) wretched, pitiful (After losing all her money, falling into a puddle, and breaking her ankle, Eloise was abject.) abjure (v.) to reject, renounce (To prove his honesty, the President abjured the evil policies of his wicked predecessor.) abnegation (n.) denial of comfort to oneself (The holy man slept on the floor, took only cold showers, and generally followed other practices of abnegation.) abort (v.) to give up on a half-finished project or effort (After they ran out of food, the men, attempting to jump rope around the world, had to abort and go home.) abridge 1. (v.) to cut down, shorten (The publisher thought the dictionary was too long and abridged it.) 2. (adj.) shortened (Moby-Dick is such a long book that even the abridged version is longer than most normal books.) abrogate (v.) to abolish, usually by authority (The Bill of Rights assures that the government cannot abrogate our right to a free press.) abscond (v.) to sneak away and hide (In the confusion, the super-spy absconded into the night with the secret plans.) absolution (n.) freedom from blame, guilt, sin (Once all the facts were known, the jury gave Angela absolution by giving a verdict of not guilty.) abstain (v.) to freely choose not to commit an action (Everyone demanded that Angus put on the kilt, but he did not want to do it and abstained.) abstruse (adj.) hard to comprehend (Everyone else in the class understood geometry easily, but John found the subject abstruse.) accede (v.) to agree (When the class asked the teacher whether they could play baseball instead of learn grammar they expected him to refuse, but instead he acceded to their request.) accentuate (v.) to stress, highlight (Psychologists agree that those people who are happiest accentuate the positive in life.) accessible (adj.) obtainable, reachable (After studying with SparkNotes and getting a great score on the SAT, Marlena happily realized that her goal of getting into an Ivy-League college was accessible.) acclaim (n.) high praise (Greg’s excellent poem won the acclaim of his friends.) accolade (n.) high praise, special distinction (Everyone offered accolades to Sam after he won the Noble Prize.) accommodating (adj.) helpful, obliging, polite (Though the apartment was not big enough for three people, Arnold, Mark, and Zebulon were all friends and were accommodating to each other.) accord (n.) an agreement (After much negotiating, England and Iceland finally came to a mutually beneficial accord about fishing rights off the cost of Greenland.) accost (v.) to confront verbally (Though Antoinette was normally quite calm, when the waiter spilled soup on her for the fourth time in 15 minutes she stood up and accosted the man.) accretion (n.) slow growth in size or amount (Stalactites are formed by the accretion of minerals from the roofs of caves.) acerbic (adj.) biting, bitter in tone or taste (Jill became extremely acerbic and began to cruelly make fun of all her friends.) acquiesce (v.) to agree without protesting (Though Mr. Correlli wanted to stay outside and work in his garage, when his wife told him that he had better come in to dinner, he acquiesced to her demands.) acrimony (n.) bitterness, discord (Though they vowed that no girl would ever come between them, Biff and Trevor could not keep acrimony from overwhelming their friendship after they both fell in love with the lovely Teresa.) acumen (n.) keen insight (Because of his mathematical acumen, Larry was able to figure out in minutes problems that took other students hours.) acute 1. (adj.) sharp, severe (Arnold could not walk because the pain in his foot was so acute.) 2. (adj.) having keen insight (Because she was so acute, Libby instantly figured out how the magician pulled off his “magic.”) adamant (adj.) impervious, immovable, unyielding (Though public pressure was intense, the President remained adamant about his proposal.) adept (adj.) extremely skilled (Tarzan was adept at jumping from tree to tree like a monkey.) adhere 1. (n.) to stick to something (We adhered the poster to the wall with tape.) 2. (n.) to follow devoutly (He adhered to the dictates of his religion without question.) admonish (v.) to caution, criticize, reprove (Joe’s mother admonished him not to ruin his appetite by eating cookies before dinner.) adorn (v.) to decorate (We adorned the tree with ornaments.) adroit (adj.) skillful, dexterous (The adroit thief could pick someone’s pocket without attracting notice.) adulation (n.) extreme praise (Though the book was pretty good, Marcy did not believe it deserved the adulation it received.) adumbrate (v.) to sketch out in a vague way (The coach adumbrated a game plan, but none of the players knew precisely what to do.) adverse (adj.) antagonistic, unfavorable, dangerous (Because of adverse conditions, the hikers decided to give up trying to climb the mountain.) advocate 1. (v.) to argue in favor of something (Arnold advocated turning left at the stop sign, even though everyone else thought we should turn right.) 2. (n.) a person who argues in favor of something (In addition to wanting to turn left at every stop sign, Arnold was also a great advocate of increasing national defense spending.) aerial (adj.) somehow related to the air (We watched as the fighter planes conducted aerial maneuvers.) aesthetic (adj.) artistic, related to the appreciation of beauty (We hired Susan as our interior decorator because she has such a fine aesthetic sense.) affable (adj.) friendly, amiable (People like to be around George because he is so affable and good-natured.) affinity (n.)a spontaneous feeling of closeness (Jerry didn’t know why, but he felt an incredible affinity for Kramer the first time they met.) affluent (adj.) rich, wealthy (Mrs. Grebelski was affluent, owning a huge house, three cars, and an island near Maine.) affront (n.) an insult (Bernardo was very touchy, and took any slight as an affront to his honor.) aggrandize (v.) to increase or make greater (Joseph always dropped the names of the famous people his father knew as a way to aggrandize his personal stature.) aggregate 1. (n.) a whole or total (The three branches of the U.S. Government form an aggregate much more powerful than its individual parts.) 2. (v.) to gather into a mass (The dictator tried to aggregate as many people into his army as he possibly could.) aggrieved (adj.) distressed, wronged, injured (The foreman mercilessly overworked his aggrieved employees.) agile (adj.) quick, nimble (The dogs were too slow to catch the agile rabbit.) agnostic (adj.) believing that the existence of God cannot be proven or disproven (Joey’s parents are very religious, but he is agnostic.) agriculture (n.) farming (It was a huge step in the progress of civilization when tribes left hunting and gathering and began to develop more sustainable methods of obtaining food, such as agriculture.) aisle (n.) a passageway between rows of seats (Once we got inside the stadium we walked down the aisle to our seats.) alacrity (n.) eagerness, speed (For some reason, Chuck loved to help his mother whenever he could, so when his mother asked him to set the table he did so with alacrity.) alias (n.) a false name or identity (He snuck past the guards by using an alias and fake ID.) allay (v.) to soothe, ease (The chairman of the Federal Reserve gave a speech to try to allay investors’ fears about an economic downturn.) allege (v.) to assert, usually without proof (The policeman had alleged that Marshall committed the crime, but after the investigation turned up no evidence, Marshall was set free.) alleviate (v.) to relieve, make more bearable (This drug will alleviate the symptoms of the terrible disease, but only for a while.) allocate (v.) to distribute, set aside (The Mayor allocated 30 percent of the funds for improving the town’s schools.) aloof (adj.) reserved, distant (The scientist could sometimes seem aloof, as if he didn’t care about his friends or family, but really he was just thinking about quantum mechanics.) altercation (n.) a dispute, fight (Jason and Lionel blamed one another for the car accident, leading to an altercation.) amalgamate (v.) to bring together, unite (Because of his great charisma, the presidential candidate was able to amalgamate all democrats and republicans under his banner.) ambiguous (adj.) uncertain, variably interpretable (Some people think Caesar married Cleopatra for her power, others believe he was charmed by her beauty. His actual reasons are ambiguous.) ambivalent (adj.) having opposing feelings (My feelings about Calvin are ambivalent because on one hand he is a loyal friend, but on the other, he is a cruel and vicious thief.) ameliorate (v.) to improve (The tense situation was ameliorated when Sam proposed a solution everyone could agree upon.) amenable (adj.) willing, compliant (Our father was amenable when we asked him to drive us to the farm so we could go apple picking.) amenity (n.) an item that increases comfort (Bill Gates’s house is stocked with so many amenities, he never has to do anything for himself.) amiable (adj.) friendly (An amiable fellow, Harry got along with just about everyone.) amicable (adj.) friendly (Claudia and Jimmy got divorced, but amicably and without hard feelings.) amorous (adj.) showing love, particularly sexual (Whenever Albert saw Mariah wear her slinky red dress, he began to feel quite amorous.) amorphous (adj.) without definite shape or type (The effort was doomed from the start, because the reasons behind it were so amorphous and hard to pin down.) anachronistic (adj.) being out of correct chronological order (In this book you’re writing, you say that the Pyramids were built after the Titanic sank, which is anachronistic.) analgesic (n.) something that reduces pain (Put this analgesic on the wound so that the poor man at least feels a little better.) analogous (adj.) similar to, so that an analogy can be drawn (Though they are unrelated genetically, the bone structure of whales and fish is quite analogous.) anarchist (n.) one who wants to eliminate all government (An anarchist, Carmine wanted to dissolve every government everywhere.) anathema (n.) a cursed, detested person (I never want to see that murderer. He is an anathema to me.) anecdote (n.) a short, humorous account (After dinner, Marlon told an anecdote about the time he got his nose stuck in a toaster.) anesthesia (n.) loss of sensation (When the nerves in his spine were damaged, Mr. Hollins suffered anesthesia in his legs.) anguish (n.) extreme sadness, torment (Angelos suffered terrible anguish when he learned that Buffy had died while combating a strange mystical force of evil.) animated (adj.) lively (When he begins to talk about drama, which is his true passion, he becomes very animated.) annex 1. (v.) to incorporate territory or space (After defeating them in battle, the Russians annexed Poland.) 2. (n.) a room attached to a larger room or space (He likes to do his studying in a little annex attached to the main reading room in the library.) annul (v.) to make void or invalid (After seeing its unforeseen and catastrophic effects, Congress sought to annul the law.) anomaly (n.) something that does not fit into the normal order (“That rip in the space- time continuum is certainly a spatial anomaly,” said Spock to Captain Kirk.) anonymous (adj.) being unknown, unrecognized (Mary received a love poem from an anonymous admirer.) antagonism (n.) hostility (Superman and Bizarro Superman shared a mutual antagonism, and often fought.) antecedent (n.) something that came before (The great tradition of Western culture had its antecedent in the culture of Ancient Greece.) antediluvian (adj.) ancient (The antediluvian man still believed that Eisenhower was president of the United States and that hot dogs cost a nickel.) anthology (n.) a selected collection of writings, songs, etc. (The new anthology of Bob Dylan songs contains all his greatest hits and a few songs that you might never have heard before.) antipathy (n.) a strong dislike, repugnance (I know you love me, but because you are a liar and a thief, I feel nothing but antipathy for you.) antiquated (adj.) old, out of date (That antiquated car has none of the features, like power windows and steering, that make modern cars so great.) antiseptic (adj.) clean, sterile (The antiseptic hospital was very bare, but its cleanliness helped to keep patients healthy.) antithesis (n.) the absolute opposite (Your values, which hold war and violence in the highest esteem, are the antithesis of my pacifist beliefs.) anxiety (n.) intense uneasiness (When he heard about the car crash, he felt anxiety because he knew that his girlfriend had been driving on the road where the accident occurred.) apathetic (adj.) lacking concern, emotion (Uninterested in politics, Bruno was apathetic about whether he lived under a capitalist or communist regime.) apocryphal (adj.) fictitious, false, wrong (Because I am standing before you, it seems obvious that the stories circulating about my demise were apocryphal.) appalling (adj.) inspiring shock, horror, disgust (The judge found the murderer’s crimes and lack of remorse appalling.) appease (v.) to calm, satisfy (When the child cries, the mother gives him candy to appease him.) appraise (v.) to assess the worth or value of (A realtor will come over tonight to appraise our house.) apprehend 1. (v.) to seize, arrest (The criminal was apprehended at the scene.) 2. (v.) to perceive, understand, grasp (The student has trouble apprehending concepts in math and science.) approbation (n.) praise (The crowd welcomed the heroes with approbation.) appropriate (v.) to take, make use of (The government appropriated the farmer’s land without justification.) aquatic (adj.) relating to water (The marine biologist studies starfish and other aquatic creatures.) arable (adj.) suitable for growing crops (The farmer purchased a plot of arable land on which he will grow corn and sprouts.) arbiter (n.) one who can resolve a dispute, make a decision (The divorce court judge will serve as the arbiter between the estranged husband and wife.) arbitrary (adj.) based on factors that appear random (The boy’s decision to choose one college over another seems arbitrary.) arbitration (n.) the process or act of resolving a dispute (The employee sought official arbitration when he could not resolve a disagreement with his supervisor.) arboreal (adj.) of or relating to trees (Leaves, roots, and bark are a few arboreal traits.) arcane (adj.) obscure, secret, known only by a few (The professor is an expert in arcane Lithuanian literature.) archaic (adj.) of or relating to an earlier period in time, outdated (In a few select regions of Western Mongolian, an archaic Chinese dialect is still spoken.) archetypal (adj.) the most representative or typical example of something (Some believe George Washington, with his flowing white hair and commanding stature, was the archetypal politician.) ardor (n.) extreme vigor, energy, enthusiasm (The soldiers conveyed their ardor with impassioned battle cries.) arid (adj.) excessively dry (Little other than palm trees and cacti grow successfully in arid environments.) arrogate (v.) to take without justification (The king arrogated the right to order executions to himself exclusively.) artifact (n.) a remaining piece from an extinct culture or place (The scientists spent all day searching the cave for artifacts from the ancient Mayan civilization.) artisan (n.) a craftsman (The artisan uses wood to make walking sticks.) ascertain (v.) to perceive, learn (With a bit of research, the student ascertained that some plants can live for weeks without water.) ascetic (adj.) practicing restraint as a means of self-discipline, usually religious (The priest lives an ascetic life devoid of television, savory foods, and other pleasures.) ascribe (v.) to assign, credit, attribute to (Some ascribe the invention of fireworks and dynamite to the Chinese.) aspersion (n.) a curse, expression of ill-will (The rival politicians repeatedly cast aspersions on each others’ integrity.) aspire (v.) to long for, aim toward (The young poet aspires to publish a book of verse someday.) assail (v.) to attack (At dawn, the war planes assailed the boats in the harbor.) assess (v.) to evaluate (A crew arrived to assess the damage after the crash.) assiduous (adj.) hard-working, diligent (The construction workers erected the skyscraper during two years of assiduous labor.) assuage (v.) to ease, pacify (The mother held the baby to assuage its fears.) astute (adj.) very clever, crafty (Much of Roger’s success in politics results from his ability to provide astute answers to reporters’ questions.) asylum 1. (n.) a place of refuge, protection, a sanctuary (For Thoreau, the forest served as an asylum from the pressures of urban life.) 2. (n.) an institution in which the insane are kept (Once diagnosed by a certified psychiatrist, the man was put in an asylum.) atone (v.) to repent, make amends (The man atoned for forgetting his wife’s birthday by buying her five dozen roses.) atrophy (v.) to wither away, decay (If muscles do not receive enough blood, they will soon atrophy and die.) attain (v.) to achieve, arrive at (The athletes strived to attain their best times in competition.) attribute 1. (v.) to credit, assign (He attributes all of his success to his mother’s undying encouragement.) 2. (n.) a facet or trait (Among the beetle’s most peculiar attributes is its thorny protruding eyes.) atypical (adj.) not typical, unusual (Screaming and crying is atypical adult behavior.) audacious (adj.) excessively bold (The security guard was shocked by the fan’s audacious attempt to offer him a bribe.) audible (adj.) able to be heard (The missing person’s shouts were unfortunately not audible.) augment (v.) to add to, expand (The eager student seeks to augment his knowledge of French vocabulary by reading French literature.) auspicious (adj.) favorable, indicative of good things (The tennis player considered the sunny forecast an auspicious sign that she would win her match.) austere (adj.) very bare, bleak (The austere furniture inside the abandoned house made the place feel haunted.) avarice (n.) excessive greed (The banker’s avarice led him to amass a tremendous personal fortune.) avenge (v.) to seek revenge (The victims will take justice into their own hands and strive to avenge themselves against the men who robbed them.) aversion (n.) a particular dislike for something (Because he’s from Hawaii, Ben has an aversion to autumn, winter, and cold climates in general.) B B balk (v.) to stop, block abruptly (Edna’s boss balked at her request for another raise.) ballad (n.) a love song (Greta’s boyfriend played her a ballad on the guitar during their walk through the dark woods.) banal (adj.) dull, commonplace (The client rejected our proposal because they found our presentation banal and unimpressive.) bane (n.) a burden (Advanced physics is the bane of many students’ academic lives.) bard (n.) a poet, often a singer as well (Shakespeare is often considered the greatest bard in the history of the English language.) bashful (adj.) shy, excessively timid (Frankie’s mother told him not to be bashful when he refused to attend the birthday party.) battery 1.(n.) a device that supplies power (Most cars run on a combination of power from a battery and gasoline.) 2. (n.)assault, beating (Her husband was accused of assault and battery after he attacked a man on the sidewalk.) beguile (v.) to trick, deceive (The thief beguiled his partners into surrendering all of their money to him.) behemoth (n.) something of tremendous power or size (The new aircraft carrier is among several behemoths that the Air Force has added to its fleet.) benevolent (adj.) marked by goodness or doing good (Police officers should be commended for their benevolent service to the community.) benign (adj.) favorable, not threatening, mild (We were all relieved to hear that the medical tests determined her tumor to be benign.) bequeath (v.) to pass on, give (Jon’s father bequeathed his entire estate to his mother.) berate (v.) to scold vehemently (The angry boss berated his employees for failing to meet their deadline.) bereft (adj.) devoid of, without (His family was bereft of food and shelter following the tornado.) beseech (v.) to beg, plead, implore (The servant beseeched the king for food to feed his starving family.) bias (n.) a tendency, inclination, prejudice (The judge’s hidden bias against smokers led him to make an unfair decision.) bilk (v.) cheat, defraud (The lawyer discovered that this firm had bilked several clients out of thousands of dollars.) blandish (v.) to coax by using flattery (Rachel’s assistant tried to blandish her into accepting the deal.) blemish (n.) an imperfection, flaw (The dealer agreed to lower the price because of the many blemishes on the surface of the wooden furniture.) blight 1. (n.) a plague, disease (The potato blight destroyed the harvest and bankrupted many families.) 2. (n.) something that destroys hope (His bad morale is a blight upon this entire operation.) boisterous (adj.) loud and full of energy (The candidate won the vote after giving several boisterous speeches on television.) bombastic (adj.) excessively confident, pompous (The singer’s bombastic performance disgusted the crowd.) boon (n.) a gift or blessing (The good weather has been a boon for many businesses located near the beach.) bourgeois (n.) a middle-class person, capitalist (Many businessmen receive criticism for their bourgeois approach to life.) brazen (adj.) excessively bold, brash (Critics condemned the novelist’s brazen attempt to plagiarize Hemingway’s story.) brusque (adj.) short, abrupt, dismissive (The captain’s brusque manner offended the passengers.) buffet 1. (v.) to strike with force (The strong winds buffeted the ships, threatening to capsize them.) 2. (n.) an arrangement of food set out on a table (Rather than sitting around a table, the guests took food from our buffet and ate standing up.) burnish (v.) to polish, shine (His mother asked him to burnish the silverware before setting the table.) buttress 1. (v.) to support, hold up (The column buttresses the roof above the statue.) 2. (n.) something that offers support (The buttress supports the roof above the statues.) C cacophony (n.) tremendous noise, disharmonious sound (The elementary school orchestra created a cacophony at the recital.) cadence (n.) a rhythm, progression of sound (The pianist used the foot pedal to emphasize the cadence of the sonata.) cajole (v.) to urge, coax (Fred’s buddies cajoled him into attending the bachelor party.) calamity (n.) an event with disastrous consequences (The earthquake in San Francisco was a calamity worse than any other natural disaster in history.) calibrate (v.) to set, standardize (The mechanic calibrated the car’s transmission to make the motor run most efficiently.) callous (adj.) harsh, cold, unfeeling (The murderer’s callous lack of remorse shocked the jury.) calumny (n.) an attempt to spoil someone else’s reputation by spreading lies (The local official’s calumny ended up ruining his opponent’s prospect of winning the election.) camaraderie (n.) brotherhood, jovial unity (Camaraderie among employees usually leads to success in business.) candor (n.) honesty, frankness (We were surprised by the candor of the mayor’s speech because he is usually rather evasive.) canny (adj.) shrewd, careful (The canny runner hung at the back of the pack through much of the race to watch the other runners, and then sprinted past them at the end.) canvas 1. (n.) a piece of cloth on which an artist paints (Picasso liked to work on canvas rather than on bare cement.) 2. (v.) to cover, inspect (We canvassed the neighborhood looking for clues.) capacious (adj.) very spacious (The workers delighted in their new capacious office space.) capitulate (v.) to surrender (The army finally capitulated after fighting a long costly battle.) capricious (adj.) subject to whim, fickle (The young girl’s capricious tendencies made it difficult for her to focus on achieving her goals.) captivate (v.) to get the attention of, hold (The fireworks captivated the young boy, who had never seen such things before.) carouse (v.) to party, celebrate (We caroused all night after getting married.) carp (v.) to annoy, pester (The husband divorced his wife after listening to her carping voice for decades.) catalog 1. (v.) to list, enter into a list (The judge cataloged the victim’s injuries before calculating how much money he would award.) 2. (n.) a list or collection (We received a catalog from J. Crew that displayed all of their new items.) catalyze (v.) to charge, inspire (The president’s speech catalyzed the nation and resuscitated the economy.) caucus (n.) a meeting usually held by people working toward the same goal (The ironworkers held a caucus to determine how much of a pay increase they would request.) caustic (adj.) bitter, biting, acidic (The politicians exchanged caustic insults for over an hour during the debate.) cavort (v.) to leap about, behave boisterously (The adults ate their dinners on the patio, while the children cavorted around the pool.) censure 1. (n.) harsh criticism (The frustrated teenager could not put up with anymore of her critical mother’s censure.) 2. (v.) to rebuke formally (The principal censured the head of the English Department for forcing students to learn esoteric vocabulary.) cerebral (adj.) related to the intellect (The books we read in this class are too cerebral— they don’t engage my emotions at all.) chaos (n.) absolute disorder (Mr. Thornton’s sudden departure for the lavatory plunged his classroom into chaos.) chastise (v.) to criticize severely (After being chastised by her peers for mimicking Britney Spears, Miranda dyed her hair black and affected a Gothic style.) cherish (v.) to feel or show affection toward something (She continued to cherish her red plaid trousers, even though they had gone out of style and no longer fit her.) chide (v.) to voice disapproval (Lucy chided Russell for his vulgar habits and sloppy appearance.) choreography (n.) the arrangement of dances (The plot of the musical was banal, but the choreography was stunning.) chronicle 1. (n.) a written history (The library featured the newly updated chronicle of World War II.) 2. (v.) to write a history (Albert’s diary chronicled the day-to-day growth of his obsession with Cynthia.) chronological (adj.) arranged in order of time (Lionel carefully arranged the snapshots of his former girlfriends in chronological order, and then set fire to them.) circuitous (adj.) roundabout (The bus’s circuitous route took us through numerous outlying suburbs.) circumlocution (n.) indirect and wordy language (The professor’s habit of speaking in circumlocutions made it difficult to follow his lectures.) circumscribed (adj.) marked off, bounded (The children were permitted to play tag only within a carefully circumscribed area of the lawn.) circumspect (adj.) cautious (Though Ipromised Rachel’s father Iwould bring her home promptly by midnight, it would have been more circumspect not to have specified a time.) circumvent (v.) to get around (The school’s dress code forbidding navel-baring jeans was circumvented by the determined students, who were careful to cover up with long coats when administrators were nearby.) clairvoyant (adj.) able to perceive things that normal people cannot (Zelda’s uncanny ability to detect my lies was nothing short of clairvoyant.) clamor 1. (n.) loud noise (Each morning the birds outside my window make such a clamor that they wake me up.) 2. (v.)to loudly insist (Neville’s fans clamored for him to appear on stage, but he had passed out on the floor of his dressing room.) clandestine (adj.) secret (Announcing to her boyfriend that she was going to the gym, Sophie actually went to meet Joseph for a clandestine liaison.) cleave 1. (v.) to divide into parts (Following the scandalous disgrace of their leader, the entire political party cleaved into warring factions.) 2. (v.) to stick together firmly (After resolving their marital problems, Junior and Rosa cleaved to one another all the more tightly.) clemency (n.) mercy (After he forgot their anniversary, Martin could only beg Maria for clemency.) clergy (n.) members of Christian holy orders (Though the villagers viewed the church rectory as quaint and charming, the clergy who lived there regarded it as a mildewy and dusty place that aggravated their allergies.) cloying (adj.) sickeningly sweet (Though Ronald was physically attractive, Maud found his constant compliments and solicitous remarks cloying.) coagulate (v.) to thicken, clot (The top layer of the pudding had coagulated into a thick skin.) coalesce (v.) to fuse into a whole (Gordon’s ensemble of thrift-shop garments coalesced into a surprisingly handsome outfit.) cobbler (n.) a person who makes or repairs shoes (I had my neighborhood cobbler replace my worn-out leather soles with new ones.) coerce (v.) to make somebody do something by force or threat (The court decided that Vanilla Ice did not have to honor the contract because he had been coerced into signing it.) cogent (adj.) intellectually convincing (Irene’s arguments in favor of abstinence were so cogent that I could not resist them.) cognizant (adj.) aware, mindful (Jake avoided speaking to women in bars because he was cognizant of the fact that drinking impairs his judgment.) coherent (adj.) logically consistent, intelligible (Renee could not figure out what Monroe had seen because he was too distraught to deliver a coherent statement.) collateral 1. (adj.) secondary (Divorcing my wife had the collateral effect of making me poor, as she was the only one of us with a job or money.) 2. (n.) security for a debt (Jacob left his watch as collateral for the $500 loan.) colloquial (adj.) characteristic of informal conversation (Adam’s essay on sexual response in primates was marked down because it contained too many colloquial expressions.) collusion (n.) secret agreement, conspiracy (The three law students worked in collusion to steal the final exam.) colossus (n.) a gigantic statue or thing (For 56 years, the ancient city of Rhodes featured a colossus standing astride its harbor.) combustion (n.) the act or process of burning (The unexpected combustion of the prosecution’s evidence forced the judge to dismiss the case against Ramirez.) commendation (n.) a notice of approval or recognition (Jared received a commendation from Linda, his supervisor, for his stellar performance.) commensurate (adj.) corresponding in size or amount (Ahab selected a very long roll and proceeded to prepare a tuna salad sandwich commensurate with his enormous appetite.) commodious (adj.) roomy (Holden invited the three women to join him in the back seat of the taxicab, assuring them that the car was quite commodious.) compelling (adj.) forceful, demanding attention (Eliot’s speech was so compelling that Lenore accepted his proposal on the spot.) compensate (v.) to make an appropriate payment for something (Reginald bought Sharona a new dress to compensate her for the one he’d spilled his ice cream on.) complacency (n.) self-satisfied ignorance of danger (Colin tried to shock his friends out of their complacency by painting a frightening picture of what might happen to them.) complement (v.) to complete, make perfect (Ann’s scarf complements her blouse beautifully, making her seem fully dressed even though she isn’t wearing a coat.) compliant (adj.) ready to adapt oneself to another’s wishes (Sue had very strong opinions about what to do on a first date, and Ted was absolutely compliant.) complicit (adj.) being an accomplice in a wrongful act (By keeping her daughter’s affair a secret, Maddie became complicit in it.) compliment (n.) an expression of esteem or approval (I blushed crimson when Emma gave me a compliment on my new haircut.) compound 1. (v.) to combine parts (The difficulty of finding a fire escape amid the smoke was compounded with the dangers posed by the panicking crowds.) 2. (n.) a combination of different parts (My attraction to Donna was a compound of curiosity about the unknown, physical desire, and intellectual admiration.) 3. (n.) a walled area containing a group of buildings (When the fighting started, Joseph rushed into the family compound because it was safe and well defended.) comprehensive (adj.) including everything (She sent me a comprehensive list of the ingredients needed to cook rabbit soufflé.) compress (v.) to apply pressure, squeeze together (Lynn compressed her lips into a frown.) compunction (n.) distress caused by feeling guilty (He felt compunction for the shabby way he’d treated her.) concede (v.) to accept as valid (Andrew had to concede that what his mother said about Diana made sense.) conciliatory (adj.) friendly, agreeable (I took Amanda’s invitation to dinner as a very conciliatory gesture.) concise (adj.) brief and direct in expression (Gordon did not like to waste time, and his instructions to Brenda were nothing if not concise.) concoct (v.) to fabricate, make up (She concocted the most ridiculous story to explain her absence.) concomitant (adj.) accompanying in a subordinate fashion (His dislike of hard work carried with it a concomitant lack of funds.) concord (n.) harmonious agreement (Julie and Harold began the evening with a disagreement, but ended it in a state of perfect concord.) condolence (n.) an expression of sympathy in sorrow (Brian lamely offered his condolences on the loss of his sister’s roommate’s cat.) condone (v.) to pardon, deliberately overlook (He refused to condone his brother’s crime.) conduit (n.) a pipe or channel through which something passes (The water flowed through the conduit into the container.) confection (n.) a sweet, fancy food (We went to the mall food court and purchased a delicious confection.) confidant (n.) a person entrusted with secrets (Shortly after we met, she became my chief confidant.) conflagration (n.) great fire (The conflagration consumed the entire building.) confluence (n.) a gathering together (A confluence of different factors made tonight the perfect night.) conformist (n.) one who behaves the same as others (Julian was such a conformist that he had to wait and see if his friends would do something before he would commit.) confound (v.) to frustrate, confuse (MacGuyver confounded the policemen pursuing him by covering his tracks.) congeal (v.) to thicken into a solid (The sauce had congealed into a thick paste.) congenial (adj.) pleasantly agreeable (His congenial manner made him popular wherever he went.) congregation (n.) a gathering of people, especially for religious services (The priest told the congregation that he would be retiring.) congruity (n.) the quality of being in agreement (Bill and Veronica achieved a perfect congruity of opinion.) connive (v.) to plot, scheme (She connived to get me to give up my vacation plans.) consecrate (v.) to dedicate something to a holy purpose (Arvin consecrated his spare bedroom as a shrine to Christina.) consensus (n.) an agreement of opinion (The jury was able to reach a consensus only after days of deliberation.) consign (v.) to give something over to another’s care (Unwillingly, he consigned his mother to a nursing home.) consolation (n.) an act of comforting (Darren found Alexandra’s presence to be a consolation for his suffering.) consonant (adj.) in harmony (The singers’ consonant voices were beautiful.) constituent (n.) an essential part (The most important constituent of her perfume is something called ambergris.) constrain (v.)to forcibly restrict (His belief in nonviolence constrained him from taking revenge on his attackers.) construe (v.) to interpret (He construed her throwing his clothes out the window as a signal that she wanted him to leave.) consummate (v.) to complete a deal; to complete a marriage ceremony through sexual intercourse (Erica and Donald consummated their agreement in the executive boardroom.) consumption (n.) the act of consuming (Consumption of intoxicating beverages is not permitted on these premises.) contemporaneous (adj.) existing during the same time (Though her novels do not feature the themes of Romanticism, Jane Austen’s work was contemporaneous with that of Wordsworth and Byron.) contentious (adj.) having a tendency to quarrel or dispute (George’s contentious personality made him unpopular with his classmates.) contravene (v.) to contradict, oppose, violate (Edwidge contravened his landlady’s rule against overnight guests.) contrite (adj.) penitent, eager to be forgiven (Blake’s contrite behavior made it impossible to stay angry at him.) contusion (n.) bruise, injury (The contusions on his face suggested he’d been in a fight.) conundrum (n.) puzzle, problem (Interpreting Jane’s behavior was a constant conundrum.) convene (v.) to call together (Jason convened his entire extended family for a discussion.) convention 1. (n.) an assembly of people (The hotel was full because of the cattle- ranchers’ convention.) 2. (n.) a rule, custom (The cattle-ranchers have a convention that you take off your boots before entering their houses.) convivial (adj.) characterized by feasting, drinking, merriment (The restaurant’s convivial atmosphere put me immediately at ease.) convoluted (adj.) intricate, complicated (Grace’s story was so convoluted that I couldn’t follow it.) copious (adj.) profuse, abundant (Copious amounts of Snapple were imbibed in the cafeteria.) cordial (adj.) warm, affectionate (His cordial greeting melted my anger at once.) coronation (n.) the act of crowning (The new king’s coronation occurred the day after his father’s death.) corpulence (adj.)extreme fatness (Henry’s corpulence did not make him any less attractive to his charming, svelte wife.) corroborate (v.) to support with evidence (Luke’s seemingly outrageous claim was corroborated by witnesses.) corrosive (adj.) having the tendency to erode or eat away (The effect of the chemical was highly corrosive.) cosmopolitan (adj.) sophisticated, worldly (Lloyd’s education and upbringing were cosmopolitan, so he felt right at home among the powerful and learned.) counteract (v.) to neutralize, make ineffective (The antidote counteracted the effect of the poison.) coup 1. (n.) a brilliant, unexpected act (Alexander pulled off an amazing coup when he got a date with Cynthia by purposely getting hit by her car.) 2. (n.) the overthrow of a government and assumption of authority (In their coup attempt, the army officers stormed the Parliament and took all the legislators hostage.) covet (v.) to desire enviously (I coveted Moses’s house, wife, and car.) covert (adj.) secretly engaged in (Nerwin waged a covert campaign against his enemies, while outwardly appearing to remain friendly.) credulity (n.) readiness to believe (His credulity made him an easy target for con men.) crescendo (n.) a steady increase in intensity or volume (The crescendo of the brass instruments gave the piece a patriotic feel.) criteria (n.) standards by which something is judged (Among Mrs. Fields’s criteria for good cookies are that they be moist and chewy.) culmination (n.) the climax toward which something progresses (The culmination of the couple’s argument was the decision to divorce.) culpable (adj.) deserving blame (He was culpable of the crime, and was sentenced to perform community service for 75 years.) cultivate (v.) to nurture, improve, refine (At the library, she cultivated her interest in spy novels.) cumulative (adj.) increasing, building upon itself (The cumulative effect of hours spent in the sun was a deep tan.) cunning (adj.) sly, clever at being deceitful (The general devised a cunning plan to surprise the enemy.) cupidity (n.) greed, strong desire (His cupidity made him enter the abandoned gold mine despite the obvious dangers.) cursory (adj.) brief to the point of being superficial (Late for the meeting, she cast a cursory glance at the agenda.) curt (adj.) abruptly and rudely short (Her curt reply to my question made me realize that she was upset at me.) curtail (v.) to lessen, reduce (Since losing his job, he had to curtail his spending.) D daunting (adj.) intimidating, causing one to lose courage (He kept delaying the daunting act of asking for a promotion.) dearth (n.) a lack, scarcity (An eager reader, she was dismayed by the dearth of classic books at the library.) debacle (n.) a disastrous failure, disruption (The elaborately designed fireworks show turned into a debacle when the fireworks started firing in random directions.) debase (v.) to lower the quality or esteem of something (The large raise that he gave himself debased his motives for running the charity.) debauch (v.) to corrupt by means of sensual pleasures (An endless amount of good wine and cheese debauched the traveler.) debunk (v.) to expose the falseness of something (He debunked her claim to be the world’s greatest chess player by defeating her in 18 consecutive matches.) decorous (adj.) socially proper, appropriate (The appreciative guest displayed decorous behavior toward his host.) decry (v.) to criticize openly (The kind video rental clerk decried the policy of charging customers late fees.) deface (v.) to ruin or injure something’s appearance (The brothers used eggs and shaving cream to deface their neighbor’s mailbox.) defamatory (adj.) harmful toward another’s reputation (The defamatory gossip spreading about the actor made the public less willing to see the actor’s new movie.) defer (v.) to postpone something; to yield to another’s wisdom (Ron deferred to Diane, the expert on musical instruments, when he was asked about buying a piano.) deferential (adj.) showing respect for another’s authority (His deferential attitude toward her made her more confident in her ability to run the company.) defile (v.) to make unclean, impure (She defiled the calm of the religious building by playing her banjo.) deft (adj.) skillful, capable (Having worked in a bakery for many years, Marcus was a deft bread maker.) defunct (adj.) no longer used or existing (They planned to turn the defunct schoolhouse into a community center.) delegate (v.) to hand over responsibility for something (The dean delegated the task of finding a new professor to a special hiring committee.) deleterious (adj.) harmful (She experienced the deleterious effects of running a marathon without stretching her muscles enough beforehand.) deliberate (adj.) intentional, reflecting careful consideration (Though Mary was quite upset, her actions to resolve the dispute were deliberate.) delineate (v.) to describe, outline, shed light on (She neatly delineated her reasons for canceling the project’s funding.) demagogue (n.) a leader who appeals to a people’s prejudices (The demagogue strengthened his hold over his people by blaming immigrants for the lack of jobs.) demarcation (n.) the marking of boundaries or categories (Different cultures have different demarcations of good and evil.) demean (v.) to lower the status or stature of something (She refused to demean her secretary by making him order her lunch.) demure (adj.) quiet, modest, reserved (Though everyone else at the party was dancing and going crazy, she remained demure.) denigrate (v.) to belittle, diminish the opinion of (The company decided that its advertisements would no longer denigrate the company’s competitors.) denounce (v.) to criticize publicly (The senator denounced her opponent as a greedy politician.) deplore (v.) to feel or express sorrow, disapproval (We all deplored the miserable working conditions in the factory.) depravity (n.) wickedness (Rumors of the ogre’s depravity made the children afraid to enter the forest.) deprecate (v.) to belittle, depreciate (Always over-modest, he deprecated his contribution to the local charity.) derelict (adj.) abandoned, run-down (Even though it was dangerous, the children enjoyed going to the deserted lot and playing in the derelict house.) deride (v.) to laugh at mockingly, scorn (The bullies derided the foreign student’s accent.) derivative (adj.) taken directly from a source, unoriginal (She was bored by his music because she felt that it was derivative and that she had heard it before.) desecrate (v.) to violate the sacredness of a thing or place (They feared that the construction of a golf course would desecrate the preserved wilderness.) desiccated (adj.) dried up, dehydrated (The skin of the desiccated mummy looked like old paper.) desolate (adj.) deserted, dreary, lifeless (She found the desolate landscape quite a contrast to the hustle and bustle of the overcrowded city.) despondent (adj.) feeling depressed, discouraged, hopeless (Having failed the first math test, the despondent child saw no use in studying for the next and failed that one too.) despot (n.) one who has total power and rules brutally (The despot issued a death sentence for anyone who disobeyed his laws.) destitute (adj.) impoverished, utterly lacking (The hurricane destroyed many homes and left many families destitute.) deter (v.) to discourage, prevent from doing (Bob’s description of scary snakes couldn’t deter Marcia from traveling in the rainforests.) devious (adj.) not straightforward, deceitful (Not wanting to be punished, the devious girl blamed the broken vase on the cat.) dialect (n.) a variation of a language (In the country’s remote, mountainous regions, the inhabitants spoke a dialect that the country’s other inhabitants had difficulty understanding.) diaphanous (adj.) light, airy, transparent (Sunlight poured in through the diaphanous curtains, brightening the room.) didactic 1. (adj.) intended to instruct (She wrote up a didactic document showing new employees how to handle the company’s customers.) 2. (adj.) overly moralistic (His didactic style of teaching made it seem like he wanted to persuade his students not to understand history fully, but to understand it from only one point of view.) diffident (adj.) shy, quiet, modest (While eating dinner with the adults, the diffident youth did not speak for fear of seeming presumptuous.) diffuse 1. (v.) to scatter, thin out, break up (He diffused the tension in the room by making in a joke.) 2. (adj.) not concentrated, scattered, disorganized (In her writings, she tried unsuccessfully to make others understand her diffuse thoughts.) dilatory (adj.) tending to delay, causing delay (The general’s dilatory strategy enabled the enemy to regroup.) diligent (adj.) showing care in doing one’s work (The diligent researcher made sure to check her measurements multiple times.) diminutive (adj.) small or miniature (The bullies, tall and strong, picked on the diminutive child.) dirge (n.) a mournful song, especially for a funeral (The bagpipers played a dirge as the casket was carried to the cemetery.) disaffected (adj.) rebellious, resentful of authority (Dismayed by Bobby’s poor behavior, the parents sent their disaffected son to a military academy to be disciplined.) disavow (v.) to deny knowledge of or responsibility for (Not wanting others to criticize her, she disavowed any involvement in the company’s hiring scandal.) discern (v.) to perceive, detect (Though he hid his emotions, she discerned from his body language that he was angry.) disclose (v.) to reveal, make public (The CEO disclosed to the press that the company would have to fire several employees.) discomfit (v.) to thwart, baffle (The normally cheery and playful children’s sudden misery discomfited the teacher.) discordant (adj.) not agreeing, not in harmony with (The girls’ sobs were a discordant sound amid the general laughter that filled the restaurant.) discrepancy (n.) difference, failure of things to correspond (He was troubled by the discrepancy between what he remembered paying for the appliance and what his receipt showed he paid for it.) discretion (n.) the quality of being reserved in speech or action; good judgment (Not wanting her patient to get overly anxious, the doctor used discretion in deciding how much to tell the patient about his condition.) discursive (adj.) rambling, lacking order (The professor’s discursive lectures seemed to be about every subject except the one initially described.) disdain 1. (v.) to scorn, hold in low esteem (Insecure about their jobs, the older employees disdained the recently hired ones, who were young and capable.) 2. (n.) scorn, low esteem (After learning of his immoral actions, Justine held Lawrence in disdain.) disgruntled (adj.) upset, not content (The child believed that his parents had unjustly grounded him, and remained disgruntled for a week.) disheartened (adj.) feeling a loss of spirit or morale (The team was disheartened after losing in the finals of the tournament.) disparage (v.) to criticize or speak ill of (The saleswoman disparaged the competitor’s products to persuade her customers to buy what she was selling.) disparate (adj.) sharply differing, containing sharply contrasting elements (Having widely varying interests, the students had disparate responses toward the novel.) dispatch (v.) to send off to accomplish a duty (The carpenter dispatched his assistant to fetch wood.) dispel (v.) to drive away, scatter (She entered the office as usual on Monday, dispelling the rumor that she had been fired.) disperse (v.) to scatter, cause to scatter (When the rain began to pour, the crowd at the baseball game quickly dispersed.) disrepute (n.) a state of being held in low regard (The officer fell into disrepute after it was learned that he had disobeyed the orders he had given to his own soldiers.) dissemble (v.) to conceal, fake (Not wanting to appear heartlessly greedy, she dissembled and hid her intention to sell her ailing father’s stamp collection.) disseminate (v.) to spread widely (The politician disseminated his ideas across the town before the election.) dissent 1. (v.) to disagree (The principal argued that the child should repeat the fourth grade, but the unhappy parents dissented.) 2. (n.) the act of disagreeing (Unconvinced that the defendant was guilty, the last juror voiced his dissent with the rest of the jury.) dissipate 1. (v.) to disappear, cause to disappear (The sun finally came out and dissipated the haze.) 2. (v.) to waste (She dissipated her fortune on a series of bad investments.) dissonance (n.) lack of harmony or consistency (Though the president of the company often spoke of the company as reliant solely upon its workers, her decision to increase her own salary rather than reward her employees revealed a striking dissonance between her alleged beliefs and her actions.) dissuade (v.) to persuade someone not to do something (Worried that he would catch a cold, she tried to dissuade him from going out on winter nights.) distend (v.) to swell out (Years of drinking beer caused his stomach to distend.) dither (v.) to be indecisive (Not wanting to offend either friend, he dithered about which of the two birthday parties he should attend.) divine (adj.) godly, exceedingly wonderful (Terribly fond of desserts, she found the rich chocolate cake to be divine.) divisive (adj.) causing dissent, discord (Her divisive tactics turned her two friends against each other.) divulge (v.) to reveal something secret (Pressured by the press, the government finally divulged the previously unknown information.) docile (adj.) easily taught or trained (She successfully taught the docile puppy several tricks.) dogmatic (adj.) aggressively and arrogantly certain about unproved principles (His dogmatic claim that men were better than women at fixing appliances angered everyone.) dormant (adj.) sleeping, temporarily inactive (Though she pretended everything was fine, her anger lay dormant throughout the dinner party and exploded in screams of rage after everyone had left.) dour (adj.)stern, joyless (The children feared their dour neighbor because the old man would take their toys if he believed they were being too loud.) dubious (adj.) doubtful, of uncertain quality (Suspicious that he was only trying to get a raise, she found his praise dubious.) duplicity (n.) crafty dishonesty (His duplicity involved convincing his employees to let him lower their salaries and increase their stock options, and then to steal the money he saved and run the company into the ground.) duress (n.) hardship, threat (It was only under intense duress that he, who was normally against killing, fired his gun.) dynamic (adj.) actively changing (The parents found it hard to keep up with the dynamic music scene with which their children had become very familiar.) E ebullient (adj.) extremely lively, enthusiastic (She became ebullient upon receiving an acceptance letter from her first-choice college.) eclectic (adj.) consisting of a diverse variety of elements (That bar attracts an eclectic crowd: lawyers, artists, circus clowns, and investment bankers.) ecstatic (adj.) intensely and overpoweringly happy (The couple was ecstatic when they learned that they had won the lottery.) edict (n.) an order, decree (The ruler issued an edict requiring all of his subjects to bow down before him.) efface (v.) to wipe out, obliterate, rub away (The husband was so angry at his wife for leaving him that he effaced all evidence of her presence; he threw out pictures of her and gave away all her belongings.) effervescent (adj.) bubbly, lively (My friend is so effervescent that she makes everyone smile.) efficacious (adj.) effective (My doctor promised me that the cold medicine was efficacious, but I’m still sniffling.) effrontery (n.) impudence, nerve, insolence (When I told my aunt that she was boring, my mother scolded me for my effrontery.) effulgent (adj.) radiant, splendorous (The golden palace was effulgent.) egregious (adj.) extremely bad (The student who threw sloppy joes across the cafeteria was punished for his egregious behavior.) elaborate (adj.) complex, detailed, intricate (Dan always beats me at chess because he develops such an elaborate game plan that I can never predict his next move.) elated (adj.) overjoyed, thrilled (When she found out she had won the lottery, the writer was elated.) elegy (n.) a speech given in honor of a dead person (At the funeral, the widow gave a moving elegy describing her love for her husband.) elicit (v.) to bring forth, draw out, evoke (Although Iasked several times where the exit was, I elicited no response from the stone-faced policeman.) eloquent (adj.) expressive, articulate, moving (The priest gave such an eloquent sermon that most churchgoers were crying.) elucidate (v.) to clarify, explain (I didn’t understand why my friend was so angry with me, so I asked Janine to elucidate her feelings.) elude (v.) to evade, escape (Despite an intense search, the robber continues to elude the police.) emaciated (adj.) very thin, enfeebled looking (My sister eats a lot of pastries and chocolate but still looks emaciated.) embellish 1. (v.) to decorate, adorn (My mom embellished the living room by adding lace curtains.) 2. (v.)to add details to, enhance (When Harry told me that he had “done stuff” on his vacation, I asked him to embellish upon his account.) embezzle (v.) to steal money by falsifying records (The accountant was fired for embezzling $10,000 of the company’s funds.) emend (v.) to correct or revise a written text (If my sentence is incorrect, the editor will emend what I have written.) eminent 1. (adj.) distinguished, prominent, famous (Mr. Phillips is such an eminent scholar that every professor on campus has come to hear him lecture.) 2. (adj.) conspicuous (There is an eminent stain on that shirt.) emollient (adj.) soothing (This emollient cream makes my skin very smooth.) emote (v.) to express emotion (The director told the actor he had to emote, or else the audience would have no idea what his character was going through.) empathy (n.) sensitivity to another’s feelings as if they were one’s own (I feel such empathy for my sister when she’s in pain that I cry too.) empirical 1. (adj.) based on observation or experience (The scientist gathered empirical data on the growth rate of dandelions by studying the dandelions behind his house.) 2. (adj.) capable of being proved or disproved by experiment (That all cats hate getting wet is an empirical statement: I can test it by bathing my cat, Trinket.) emulate (v.) to imitate (I idolize Britney Spears so much that I emulate everything she does: I wear her outfits, sing along to her songs, and date a boy named Justin.) enamor (v.) to fill with love, fascinate, usually used in passive form followed by “of” or “with” (I grew enamored of that boy when he quoted my favorite love poem.) encore (n.) the audience’s demand for a repeat performance; also the artist’s performance in response to that demand (At the end of the concert, all the fans yelled, “Encore! Encore!” but the band did not come out to play again.) encumber (v.) to weigh down, burden (At the airport, my friend was encumbered by her luggage, so I offered to carry two of her bags.) enervate (v.) to weaken, exhaust (Writing these sentences enervates me so much that I will have to take a nap after I finish.) enfranchise (v.) to grant the vote to (The Nineteenth Amendment enfranchised women.) engender (v.) to bring about, create, generate (During the Olympics, the victories of U.S. athletes engender a patriotic spirit among Americans.) enigmatic (adj.) mystifying, cryptic (That man wearing the dark suit and dark glasses is so enigmatic that no one even knows his name.) enmity (n.) ill will, hatred, hostility (Mark and Andy have clearly not forgiven each other, because the enmity between them is obvious to anyone in their presence.) ennui (n.) boredom, weariness (I feel such ennui that I don’t look forward to anything, not even my birthday party.) entail (v.) to include as a necessary step (Building a new fence entails tearing down the old one.) enthrall (v.) to charm, hold spellbound (The sailor’s stories of fighting off sharks and finding ancient treasures enthralled his young son.) ephemeral (adj.) short-lived, fleeting (She promised she’d love me forever, but her “forever” was only ephemeral: she left me after one week.) epistolary (adj.) relating to or contained in letters (Some people call me “Auntie’s boy,” because my aunt and I have such a close epistolary relationship that we write each other every day.) epitome (n.) a perfect example, embodiment (My mother, the epitome of good taste, always dresses more elegantly than I do.) equanimity (n.) composure (Even though he had just been fired, Mr. Simms showed great equanimity by neatly packing up his desk and wishing everyone in the office well.) equivocal (adj.) ambiguous, uncertain, undecided (His intentions were so equivocal that I didn’t know whether he was being chivalrous or sleazy.) erudite (adj.) learned (My Latin teacher is such an erudite scholar that he has translated some of the most difficult and abstruse ancient poetry.) eschew (v.) to shun, avoid (George hates the color green so much that he eschews all green food.) esoteric (adj.) understood by only a select few (Even the most advanced students cannot understand the physicist’s esoteric theories.) espouse (v.) to take up as a cause, support (I love animals so much that I espouse animal rights.) ethereal (adj.) heavenly, exceptionally delicate or refined (In her flowing silk gown and lace veil, the bride looked ethereal.) etymology (n.) the history of words, their origin and development (From the study of etymology, I know that the word “quixotic” derives from Don Quixote and the word “gaudy” refers to the Spanish architect Gaudí.) euphoric (adj.) elated, uplifted (I was euphoric when I found out that my sister had given birth to twins.) evanescent (adj.) fleeting, momentary (My joy at getting promoted was evanescent because I discovered that I would have to work much longer hours in a less friendly office.) evince (v.) to show, reveal (Christopher’s hand-wringing and nail-biting evince how nervous he is about the upcoming English test.) exacerbate (v.) to make more violent, intense (The gruesome and scary movie I saw last night exacerbated my fears of the dark.) exalt (v.) to glorify, praise (Michael Jordan is the figure in basketball we exalt the most.) exasperate (v.) to irritate, irk (George’s endless complaints exasperated his roomate.) excavate (v.) to dig out of the ground and remove (The pharaoh’s treasures were excavated by archeologists in Egypt.) exculpate (v.) to free from guilt or blame, exonerate (My discovery of the ring behind the dresser exculpated me from the charge of having stolen it.) excursion (n.) a trip or outing (After taking an excursion to the Bronx Zoo, I dreamed about pandas and monkeys.) execrable (adj.) loathsome, detestable (Her pudding is so execrable that it makes me sick.) exhort (v.) to urge, prod, spur (Henry exhorted his colleagues to join him in protesting against the university’s hiring policies.) exigent (adj.) urgent, critical (The patient has an exigent need for medication, or else he will lose his sight.) exonerate (v.) to free from guilt or blame, exculpate (The true thief’s confession exonerated the man who had been held in custody for the crime.) exorbitant (adj.) excessive (Her exorbitant praise made me blush and squirm in my seat.) expedient (adj.) advisable, advantageous, serving one’s self-interest (In his bid for reelection, the governor made an expedient move by tabling all controversial legislation.) expiate (v.) to make amends for, atone (To expiate my selfishness, I gave all my profits to charity.) expunge (v.) to obliterate, eradicate (Fearful of an IRS investigation, Paul tried to expunge all incriminating evidence from his tax files.) expurgate (v.) to remove offensive or incorrect parts, usually of a book (The history editors expurgated from the text all disparaging and inflammatory comments about the Republican Party.) extant (adj.) existing, not destroyed or lost (My mother’s extant love letters to my father are in the attic trunk.) extol (v.) to praise, revere (Violet extolled the virtues of a vegetarian diet to her meat- loving brother.) extraneous (adj.) irrelevant, extra, not necessary (Personal political ambitions should always remain extraneous to legislative policy, but, unfortunately, they rarely are.) extricate (v.) to disentangle (Instead of trying to mediate between my brother and sister, I extricated myself from the family tension entirely and left the house for the day.) exult (v.) to rejoice (When she found out she won the literature prize, Mary exulted by dancing and singing through the school’s halls.) F fabricate (v.) to make up, invent (When I arrived an hour late to class, I fabricated some excuse about my car breaking down on the way to school.) façade 1. (n.) the wall of a building (Meet me in front of the museum’s main façade.) 2. (n.) a deceptive appearance or attitude (Despite my smiling façade, I am feeling melancholy.) facile 1. (adj.) easy, requiring little effort (This game is so facile that even a four-year- old can master it.) 2. (adj.) superficial, achieved with minimal thought or care, insincere (The business was in such shambles that any solution seemed facile at best; nothing could really helpit in the long-run.) fallacious (adj.) incorrect, misleading (Emily offered me cigarettes on the fallacious assumption that I smoked.) fastidious (adj.) meticulous, demanding, having high and often unattainable standards (Mark is so fastidious that he is never able to finish a project because it always seems imperfect to him.) fathom (v.) to understand, comprehend (I cannot fathom why you like that crabby and mean-spirited neighbor of ours.) F fatuous (adj.) silly, foolish (He considers himself a serious poet, but in truth, he only writes fatuous limericks.) fecund (adj.) fruitful, fertile (The fecund tree bore enough apples to last us through the entire season.) felicitous 1. (adj.) well suited, apt (While his comments were idiotic and rambling, mine were felicitous and helpful.) 2. (adj.) delightful, pleasing (I spent a felicitous afternoon visiting old friends.) feral (adj.) wild, savage (That beast looks so feral that I would fear being alone with it.) fervent (adj.) ardent, passionate (The fervent protestors chained themselves to the building and shouted all night long.) fetid (adj.) having a foul odor (I can tell from the fetid smell in your refrigerator that your milk has spoiled.) fetter (v.) to chain, restrain (The dog was fettered to the parking meter.) fickle (adj.) shifting in character, inconstant (In Greek dramas, the fickle gods help Achilles one day, and then harm him the next.) fidelity (n.) loyalty, devotion (Guard dogs are known for the great fidelity they show toward their masters.) figurative (adj.) symbolic (Using figurative language, Jane likened the storm to an angry bull.) flabbergasted (adj.) astounded (Whenever I read an Agatha Christie mystery novel, I am always flabbergasted when I learn the identity of the murderer.) flaccid (adj.) limp, not firm or strong (If a plant is not watered enough, its leaves become droopy and flaccid.) flagrant (adj.) offensive, egregious (The judge’s decision to set the man free simply because that man was his brother was a flagrant abuse of power.) florid (adj.) flowery, ornate (The writer’s florid prose belongs on a sentimental Hallmark card.) flout (v.) to disregard or disobey openly (I flouted the school’s dress code by wearing a tie-dyed tank top and a pair of cut-off jeans.) foil (v.) to thwart, frustrate, defeat (Inspector Wilkens foiled the thieves by locking them in the bank along with their stolen money.) forage (v.) to graze, rummage for food (When we got lost on our hiking trip, we foraged for berries and nuts in order to survive.) forbearance (n.) patience, restraint, toleration (The doctor showed great forbearance in calming down the angry patient who shouted insults at him.) forestall (v.) to prevent, thwart, delay (I forestalled the cold I was getting by taking plenty of vitamin C pills and wearing a scarf.) forlorn (adj.) lonely, abandoned, hopeless (Even though I had the flu, my family decided to go skiing for the weekend and leave me home alone, feeling feverish and forlorn.) forsake (v.) to give up, renounce (My New Year’s resolution is to forsake smoking and drinking.) fortitude (n.) strength, guts (Achilles’ fortitude in battle is legendary.) fortuitous (adj.) happening by chance, often lucky or fortunate (After looking for Manuel and not finding him at home, Harriet had a fortuitous encounter with him at the post office.) forum (n.) a medium for lecture or discussion (Some radio talk-shows provide a good forum for political debate.) foster (v.) to stimulate, promote, encourage (To foster good health in the city, the mayor started a “Get out and exercise!” campaign.) fractious (adj.) troublesome or irritable (Although the child insisted he wasn’t tired, his fractious behavior—especially his decision to crush his cheese and crackers all over the floor—convinced everyone present that it was time to put him to bed.) fraught (adj.) (usually used with “with”) filled or accompanied with (Her glances in his direction were fraught with meaning, though precisely what meaning remained unclear.) frenetic (adj.) frenzied, hectic, frantic (In the hours between night and morning, the frenetic pace of city life slows to a lull.) frivolous (adj.) of little importance, trifling (Someday, all that anxiety about whether your zit will disappear before the prom will seem totally frivolous.) frugal (adj.) thrifty, economical (Richard is so frugal that his diet consists almost exclusively of catfish and chicken liver—the two most inexpensive foods in the store.) G furtive (adj.) secretive, sly (Jane’s placement of her drugs in her sock drawer was not as furtive as she thought, as the sock drawer is the first place most parents look.) G garish (adj.) gaudy, in bad taste (Mrs. Watson has poor taste and covers every object in her house with a garish gold lamé.) garrulous (adj.) talkative, wordy (Some talk show hosts are so garrulous that their guests can’t get a word in edgewise.) genial (adj.) friendly, affable (Although he’s been known to behave like a real jerk, I would say that my brother is an overall genial guy.) gluttony (n.) overindulgence in food or drink (Ada’s fried chicken tastes so divine, I don’t know how anyone can call gluttony a sin.) goad (v.) to urge, spur, incite to action (Jim may think he’s not going to fight Billy, but Billy will goad Jim on with insults until he throws a punch.) gourmand (n.) someone fond of eating and drinking (My parents, who used to eat little more than crackers and salad, have become real gourmands in their old age.) grandiloquence (n.) lofty, pompous language (The student thought her grandiloquence would make her sound smart, but neither the class nor the teacher bought it.) grandiose (adj.) on a magnificent or exaggerated scale (Margaret planned a grandiose party, replete with elephants, trapeze artists, and clowns.) gratuitous (adj.) uncalled for, unwarranted (Every morning the guy at the donut shop gives me a gratuitous helping of ketchup packets.) gregarious (adj.) drawn to the company of others, sociable (Well, if you’re not gregarious, I don’t know why you would want to go to a singles party!) grievous (adj.) injurious, hurtful; serious or grave in nature (Electrocuting the inmate without being sure of his guilt would be a truly grievous mistake.) guile (n.) deceitful, cunning, sly behavior (Because of his great guile, the politician was able to survive scandal after scandal.) H hackneyed (adj.) unoriginal, trite (A girl can only hear “I love you” so many times before it begins to sound hackneyed and meaningless.) H hallowed (adj.) revered, consecrated (In the hallowed corridors of the cathedral, the disturbed professor felt himself to be at peace.) hapless (adj.) unlucky (My poor, hapless family never seems to pick a sunny week to go on vacation.) harangue 1. (n.) a ranting speech (Everyone had heard the teacher’s harangue about gum chewing in class before.) 2. (v.) to give such a speech (But this time the teacher harangued the class about the importance of brushing your teeth after chewing gum.) hardy (adj.) robust, capable of surviving through adverse conditions (I too would have expected the plants to be dead by mid-November, but apparently they’re very hardy.) harrowing (adj.) greatly distressing, vexing (The car crash was a harrowing experience, but I have a feeling that the increase in my insurance premiums will be even more upsetting.) haughty (adj.) disdainfully proud (The superstar’s haughty dismissal of her costars will backfire on her someday.) hedonist (n.) one who believes pleasure should be the primary pursuit of humans (Because he’s such a hedonist, I knew Murray would appreciate the 11 cases of wine I bought him for his birthday.) hegemony (n.) domination over others (Britain’s hegemony over its colonies was threatened once nationalist sentiment began to spread around the world.) heinous (adj.) shockingly wicked, repugnant (The killings were made all the more heinous by the fact that the murderer first tortured his victims for three days.) heterogeneous (adj.) varied, diverse in character (I hate having only one flavor so I always buy the swirled, or should I say heterogeneous, type of ice cream.) hiatus (n.) a break or gap in duration or continuity (The hiatus in service should last two or three months—until the cable lines are repaired .) hierarchy (n.) a system with ranked groups, usually according to social, economic, or professional class (Women found it very difficult to break into the upper ranks of the department’s hierarchy.) hypocrisy (n.) pretending to believe what one does not (Once the politician began passing legislation that contradicted his campaign promises, his hypocrisy became apparent.) hypothetical (adj.) supposed or assumed true, but unproven (Even though it has been celebrated by seven major newspapers, that the drug will be a success when tested in humans is still hypothetical.) I iconoclast (n.) one who attacks common beliefs or institutions (Jane goes to one protest after another, but she seems to be an iconoclast rather than an activist with a progressive agenda.) idiosyncratic (adj.) peculiar to one person; highly individualized (I know you had trouble with the last test, but because your mistakes were highly idiosyncratic, I’m going to deny your request that the class be given a new test.) idolatrous (adj.) excessively worshipping one object or person (Xena’s idolatrous fawning over the band—following them on tour, starting their fan club, filming their documentary—is really beginning to get on my nerves.) ignominious (adj.) humiliating, disgracing (It was really ignominious to be kicked out of the dorm for having an illegal gas stove in my room.) illicit (adj.) forbidden, not permitted (The fourth-grader learned many illicit words from a pamphlet that was being passed around school.) immerse (v.) to absorb, deeply involve, engross (After breaking up with her boyfriend, Nancy decided to immerse herself in her work in order to avoid crying.) immutable (adj.) not changeable (The laws of physics are immutable and constant.) impassive (adj.) stoic, not susceptible to suffering (Stop being so impassive; it’s healthy to cry every now and then.) impeccable (adj.) exemplary, flawless (If your grades were as impeccable as your sister’s, then you too would receive a car for a graduation present.) impecunious (adj.) poor (“I fear he’s too impecunious to take me out tonight,” the bratty girl whined.) imperative 1. (adj.) necessary, pressing (It is imperative that you have these folders organized by midday.) 2. (n.) a rule, command, or order (Her imperative to have the folders organized by midday was perceived as ridiculous by the others.) imperious (adj.) commanding, domineering (The imperious nature of your manner led me to dislike you at once.) impertinent (adj.) rude, insolent (Most of your comments are so impertinent that I don’t wish to dignify them with an answer.) impervious (adj.) impenetrable, incapable of being affected (Because of their thick layer of fur, many seals are almost impervious to the cold.) impetuous (adj.) rash; hastily done (Hilda’s hasty slaying of the king was an impetuous, thoughtless action.) impinge 1. (v.) to impact, affect, make an impression (The hail impinged the roof, leaving large dents.) 2. (v.) to encroach, infringe (I apologize for impinging upon you like this, but I really need to use your bathroom. Now.) implacable (adj.) incapable of being appeased or mitigated (Watch out: once you shun Grandma’s cooking, she is totally implacable.) implement 1. (n.) an instrument, utensil, tool (Do you have a knife or some other sort of implement that I could use to pry the lid off of this jar?) 2. (v.) to put into effect, to institute (After the first town curfew failed to stop the graffiti problem, the mayor implemented a new policy to use security cameras to catch perpetrators in the act.) implicate (v.) to involve in an incriminating way, incriminate (Even though Tom wasn’t present at the time of the shooting, he was implicated by the evidence suggesting that he had supplied the shooters with guns.) implicit (adj.) understood but not outwardly obvious, implied (I know Professor Smith didn’t actually say not to write from personal experience, but I think such a message was implicit in her instruction to use scholarly sources.) impregnable (adj.) resistant to capture or penetration (Though the invaders used battering rams, catapults, and rain dances, the fortress proved impregnable and resisted all attacks.) impudent (adj.) casually rude, insolent, impertinent (The impudent young man looked the princess up and down and told her she was hot even though she hadn’t asked him.) impute (v.) to ascribe, blame (The CEO imputed the many typos in the letter to his lazy secretary.) inane (adj.) silly and meaningless (Some films are so inane that the psychology of the characters makes absolutely no sense.) inarticulate (adj.) incapable of expressing oneself clearly through speech (Though he spoke for over an hour, the lecturer was completely inarticulate and the students had no idea what he was talking about.) incarnate 1. (adj.) existing in the flesh, embodied (In the church pageant, I play the role of greed incarnate.) 2. (v.) to give human form to (The alien evaded detection by incarnating himself in a human form.) incendiary 1. (n.) a person who agitates (If we catch the incendiary who screamed “bomb” in the middle of the soccer match, we’re going to put him in jail.) 2. (adj.) inflammatory, causing combustion (Gas and lighter fluid are incendiary materials that should be kept out of hot storage areas.) incessant (adj.) unending (We wanted to go outside and play, but the incessant rain kept us indoors for two days.) inchoate (adj.) unformed or formless, in a beginning stage (The country’s government is still inchoate and, because it has no great tradition, quite unstable.) incisive (adj.) clear, sharp, direct (The discussion wasn’t going anywhere until her incisive comment allowed everyone to see what the true issues were.) inclination (n.) a tendency, propensity (Sarah has an inclination to see every foreign film she hears about, even when she’s sure that she won’t like it.) incontrovertible (adj.) indisputable (Only stubborn Tina would attempt to disprove the incontrovertible laws of physics.) incorrigible (adj.) incapable of correction, delinquent (You can buy Grandma nicotine gum all you want, but I think that after sixty-five years of smoking she’s incorrigible.) increment (n.) an enlargement; the process of increasing(The workmen made the wall longer, increment by increment.) incumbent 1. (n.) one who holds an office (The incumbent senator is already serving his fifth term.) 2. (adj.) obligatory (It is incumbent upon this organization to offer aid to all who seek it.) indefatigable (adj.) incapable of defeat, failure, decay (Even after traveling 62 miles, the indefatigable runner kept on moving.) indigenous (adj.) originating in a region (Some fear that these plants, which are not indigenous to the region, may choke out the vegetation that is native to the area.) indigent (adj.) very poor, impoverished (I would rather donate money to help the indigent population than to the park sculpture fund.) indignation (n.) anger sparked by something unjust or unfair (I resigned from the sorority because of my indignation at its hazing of new members.) indolent (adj.) lazy (Why should my indolent children, who can’t even pick themselves up off the couch to pour their own juice, be rewarded with a trip to the mall?) indomitable (adj.) not capable of being conquered (To be honest, Jim, my indomitable nature means I could never take orders from anyone, and especially not from a jerk like you.) induce (v.) to bring about, stimulate (Who knew that our decision to boycott school lunch would induce a huge riot?) ineffable (adj.) unspeakable, incapable of being expressed through words (It is said that the experience of playing with a dolphin is ineffable and can only be understood through direct encounter.) inept (adj.) not suitable or capable, unqualified (She proved how inept she was when she forgot three orders and spilled a beer in a customer’s lap.) inexorable (adj.) incapable of being persuaded or placated (Although I begged for hours, Mom was inexorable and refused to let me stay out all night after the prom.) inextricable (adj.) hopelessly tangled or entangled (Unless I look at the solution manual, I have no way of solving this inextricable problem.) infamy (n.) notoriety, extreme ill repute (The infamy of his crime will not lessen as the decades pass.) infusion (n.) an injection of one substance into another; the permeation of one substance by another (The infusion of Eastern religion into Western philosophy created interesting new schools of thought.) ingenious (adj.) clever, resourceful (Her ingenious use of walnuts instead of the peanuts called for by the recipe was lauded by the other garden club members who found her cake delicious.) ingenuous (adj.) not devious; innocent and candid (He must have writers, but his speeches seem so ingenuous it’s hard to believe he’s not speaking from his own heart.) inhibit (v.) to prevent, restrain, stop (When I told you I needed the car last night, I certainly never meant to inhibit you from going out.) inimical (adj.) hostile, enemylike (I don’t see how I could ever work for a company that was so cold and inimical to me during my interviews.) iniquity (n.) wickedness or sin (“Your iniquity,” said the priest to the practical jokester, “will be forgiven.”) injunction (n.) an order of official warning (After his house was toilet-papered for the fifth time, the mayor issued an injunction against anyone younger than 21 buying toilet paper.) innate (adj.) inborn, native, inherent (His incredible athletic talent is innate, he never trains, lifts weights, or practices.) innocuous (adj.) harmless, inoffensive (In spite of their innocuous appearance, these mushrooms are actually quite poisonous.) innovate (v.) to do something in an unprecedented way (Because of the stiff competition, the company knew it needed to pour a lot of energy into innovating new and better products.) innuendo (n.) an insinuation (During the debate, the politician made several innuendos about the sexual activities of his opponent.) inoculate (v.) to introduce a microorganism, serum, or vaccine into an organism in order to increase immunity to illness; to vaccinate (I’ve feared needles ever since I was inoculated against 37 diseases at age one; but I have also never been sick.) inquisitor (n.) one who inquires, especially in a hostile manner (The inquisitor was instructed to knock on every door in town in order to find the fugitive.) insatiable (adj.) incapable of being satisfied (My insatiable appetite for melons can be a real problem in the winter.) insidious (adj.) appealing but imperceptibly harmful, seductive (Lisa’s insidious chocolate cake tastes so good but makes you feel so sick later on!) insinuate (v.) to suggest indirectly or subtly (I wish Luke and Spencer would stop insinuating that my perfect report card is the result of anything other than my superior intelligence and good work habits.) insipid (adj.) dull, boring (The play was so insipid, I fell asleep halfway through.) insolent (adj.) rude, arrogant, overbearing (That celebrity is so insolent, making fun of his fans right to their faces.) instigate (v.) to urge, goad (The demagogue instigated the crowd into a fury by telling them that they had been cheated by the federal government.) insular (adj.) separated and narrow-minded; tight-knit, closed off (Because of the sensitive nature of their jobs, those who work for the CIA must remain insular and generally only spend time with each other.) insurgent (n.) one who rebels (The insurgent snuck into and defaced a different classroom each night until the administration agreed to meet his demands.) integral (adj.) necessary for completeness (Without the integral ingredient of flour, you wouldn’t be able to make bread.) interject (v.) to insert between other things (During our conversation, the cab driver occasionally interjected his opinion.) interlocutor (n.) someone who participates in a dialogue or conversation (When the officials could not come to an agreement over the correct cover of the flags, the prime minister acted as an interlocutor.) interminable (adj.) without possibility of end (The fact that biology lectures came just before lunch made them seem interminable.) intimation (n.) an indirect suggestion (Mr. Brinford’s intimation that he would soon pass away occurred when he began to discuss how to distribute his belongings among his children.) intractable (adj.) difficult to manipulate, unmanageable (There was no end in sight to the intractable conflict between the warring countries.) intransigent (adj.) refusing to compromise, often on an extreme opinion (The intransigent child said he would have 12 scoops of ice cream, or he would bang his head against the wall until his mother fainted from fear.) intrepid (adj.) brave in the face of danger (After scaling a live volcano prior to its eruption, the explorer was praised for his intrepid attitude.) inundate (v.) to flood with abundance (Because I am the star of a new sitcom, my fans are sure to inundate me with fan mail and praise.) inure (v.) to cause someone or something to become accustomed to a situation (Twenty years in the salt mines inured the man to the discomforts of dirt and grime.) invective (n.) an angry verbal attack (My mother’s irrational invective against the way I dress only made me decide to dye my hair green.) inveterate (adj.) stubbornly established by habit (I’m the first to admit that I’m an inveterate coffee drinker—I drink four cups a day.) inviolable (adj.) secure from assault (Nobody was ever able to break into Batman’s inviolable Batcave.) irascible (adj.) easily angered (At the smallest provocation, my irascible cat will begin scratching and clawing.) J iridescent (adj.) showing rainbow colors (The bride’s large diamond ring was iridescent in the afternoon sun.) irreverence (n.) disrespect (The irreverence displayed by the band that marched through the chapel disturbed many churchgoers.) irrevocable (adj.) incapable of being taken back (The Bill of Rights is an irrevocable part of American law.) J jubilant (adj.) extremely joyful, happy (The crowd was jubilant when the firefighter carried the woman from the flaming building.) judicious (adj.) having or exercising sound judgment (When the judicious king decided to compromise rather than send his army to its certain death, he was applauded.) juxtaposition (n.) the act of placing two things next to each other for implicit comparison (The interior designer admired my juxtaposition of the yellow couch and green table.) K knell (n.) the solemn sound of a bell, often indicating a death (Echoing throughout our village, the funeral knell made the stormy day even more grim.) kudos (n.) praise for an achievement (After the performance, the reviewers gave the opera singer kudos for a job well done.) L laceration (n.) a cut, tear (Because he fell off his bike into a rosebush, the paperboy’s skin was covered with lacerations.) laconic (adj.) terse in speech or writing (The author’s laconic style has won him many followers who dislike wordiness.) languid (adj.) sluggish from fatigue or weakness (In the summer months, the great heat makes people languid and lazy.) larceny (n.) obtaining another’s property by theft or trickery (When my car was not where I had left it, I realized that I was a victim of larceny.) largess (n.) the generous giving of lavish gifts (My boss demonstrated great largess by giving me a new car.) latent (adj.) hidden, but capable of being exposed (Sigmund’s dream represented his latent paranoid obsession with other people’s shoes.) laudatory (adj.) expressing admiration or praise (Such laudatory comments are unusual from someone who is usually so reserved in his opinions.) lavish 1. (adj.) given without limits (Because they had worked very hard, the performers appreciated the critic’s lavish praise.) 2. (v.) to give without limits (Because the performers had worked hard, they deserved the praise that the critic lavished on them.) legerdemain (n.) deception, slight-of-hand (Smuggling the French plants through customs by claiming that they were fake was a remarkable bit of legerdemain.) lenient (adj.) demonstrating tolerance or gentleness (Because Professor Oglethorpe allowed his students to choose their final grades, the other teachers believed that he was excessively lenient.) lethargic (adj.) in a state of sluggishness or apathy (When Jean Claude explained to his boss that he was lethargic and didn’t feel like working that day, the boss fired him.) liability 1. (n.) something for which one is legally responsible, usually involving a disadvantage or risk (The bungee-jumping tower was a great liability for the owners of the carnival.) 2. (n.) a handicap, burden (Because she often lost her concentration and didn’t play defense, Marcy was a liability to the team.) libertarian (adj.) advocating principles of liberty and free will (The dissatisfied subjects overthrew the monarch and replaced him with a libertarian ruler who respected their democratic principles.) licentious (adj.) displaying a lack of moral or legal restraints (Marilee has always been fascinated by the licentious private lives of politicians.) limpid (adj.) clear, transparent (Mr. Johnson’s limpid writing style greatly pleased readers who disliked complicated novels.) linchpin (n.) something that holds separate parts together (The linchpin in the prosecution’s case was the hair from the defendant’s head, which was found at the scene of the crime.) lithe (adj.) graceful, flexible, supple (Although the dancers were all outstanding, Jae Sun’s control of her lithe body was particularly impressive.) litigant (n.) someone engaged in a lawsuit (When the litigants began screaming at each other, Judge Koch ordered them to be silent.) M lucid (adj.) clear, easily understandable (Because Guenevere’s essay was so lucid, I only had to read it once to understand her reasoning.) luminous (adj.) brightly shining (The light of the luminous moon graced the shoulders of the beautiful maiden.) lurid (adj.) ghastly, sensational (Gideon’s story, in which he described a character torturing his sister’s dolls, was judged too lurid to be printed in the school’s literary magazine.) M maelstrom (n.) a destructive whirlpool which rapidly sucks in objects (Little did the explorers know that as they turned the next bend of the calm river a vicious maelstrom would catch their boat.) magnanimous (adj.) noble, generous (Although I had already broken most of her dishes, Jacqueline was magnanimous enough to continue letting me use them.) malediction (n.) a curse (When I was arrested for speeding, I screamed maledictions against the policeman and the entire police department.) malevolent (adj.) wanting harm to befall others (The malevolent old man sat in the park all day, tripping unsuspecting passersby with his cane.) malleable (adj.) capable of being shaped or transformed (Maximillian’s political opinions were so malleable that anyone he talked to was able to change his mind instantly.) mandate (n.) an authoritative command (In the Old Testament, God mandates that no one should steal.) manifest 1. (adj.) easily understandable, obvious (When I wrote the wrong sum on the chalkboard, my mistake was so manifest that the entire class burst into laughter.) 2. (v.) to show plainly (His illness first manifested itself with particularly violent hiccups.) manifold (adj.) diverse, varied (The popularity of Dante’s Inferno is partly due to the fact that the work allows for manifold interpretations.) maudlin (adj.) weakly sentimental (Although many people enjoy romantic comedies, I usually find them maudlin and shallow.) maverick (n.) an independent, nonconformist person (Andreas is a real maverick and always does things his own way.) mawkish (adj.) characterized by sick sentimentality (Although some nineteenth- century critics viewed Dickens’s writing as mawkish, contemporary readers have found great emotional depth in his works.) maxim (n.) a common saying expressing a principle of conduct (Miss Manners’s etiquette maxims are both entertaining and instructional.) meager (adj.) deficient in size or quality (My meager portion of food did nothing to satisfy my appetite.) medley (n.) a mixture of differing things (Susannah’s wardrobe contained an astonishing medley of colors, from olive green to fluorescent pink.) mendacious (adj.) having a lying, false character (The mendacious content of the tabloid magazines is at least entertaining.) mercurial (adj.) characterized by rapid change or temperamentality (Though he was widely respected for his mathematical proofs, the mercurial genius was impossible to live with.) meritorious (adj.) worthy of esteem or reward (Manfred was given the congressional medal of honor for his meritorious actions.) metamorphosis (n.) the change of form, shape, substance (Winnifred went to the gym every day for a year and underwent a metamorphosis from a waiflike girl to an athletic woman.) meticulous (adj.) extremely careful with details (The ornate needlework in the bride’s gown was a product of meticulous handiwork.) mitigate (v.) to make less violent, alleviate (When I had an awful sore throat, only warm tea would mitigate the pain.) moderate 1. (adj.) not extreme (Luckily, the restaurant we chose had moderate prices; none of us have any money.) 2. (n.) one who expresses moderate opinions (Because he found both the liberal and conservative proposals too excessive, Mr. Park sided with the moderates.) modicum (n.) a small amount of something (Refusing to display even a modicum of sensitivity, Henrietta announced her boss’s affair in front of the entire office.) modulate (v.) to pass from one state to another, especially in music (The composer wrote a piece that modulated between minor and major keys.) mollify (v.) to soften in temper (The police officer mollified the angry woman by giving her a warning instead of a ticket.) N morass (n.) a wet swampy bog; figuratively, something that traps and confuses (When Theresa lost her job, she could not get out of her financial morass.) mores (n.) the moral attitudes and fixed customs of a group of people. (Mores change over time; many things that were tolerated in 1975 are no longer seen as being socially acceptable.) morose (adj.) gloomy or sullen (Jason’s morose nature made him very unpleasant to talk to.) multifarious (adj.) having great diversity or variety (This Swiss Army knife has multifarious functions and capabilities. Among other things, it can act as a knife, a saw, a toothpick, and a slingshot.) mundane (adj.) concerned with the world rather than with heaven, commonplace (He is more concerned with the mundane issues of day-to-day life than with spiritual topics.) munificence (n.) generosity in giving (The royal family’s munificence made everyone else in their country rich.) mutable (adj.) able to change (Because fashion is so mutable, what is trendy today will look outdated in five years.) myriad (adj.) consisting of a very great number (It was difficult to decide what to do Friday night because the city presented us with myriad possibilities for fun.) N nadir (n.) the lowest point of something (My day was boring, but the nadir came when I accidentally spilled a bowl of spaghetti on my head.) nascent (adj.) in the process of being born or coming into existence (Unfortunately, my brilliant paper was only in its nascent form on the morning that it was due.) nebulous (adj.) vaguely defined, cloudy (The transition between governments meant that who was actually in charge was a nebulous matter.) nefarious (adj.) heinously villainous (Although Dr. Meanman’s nefarious plot to melt the polar icecaps was terrifying, it was so impractical that nobody really worried about it.) negligent (adj.) habitually careless, neglectful (Jessie’s grandfather called me a negligent fool after I left the door to his apartment unlocked even though there had been a recent string of robberies.) O neophyte (n.) someone who is young or inexperienced (As a neophyte in the literary world, Malik had trouble finding a publisher for his first novel.) nocturnal (adj.) relating to or occurring during the night (Jackie was a nocturnal person; she would study until dawn and sleep until the evening.) noisome (adj.) unpleasant, offensive, especially to the sense of smell (Nobody would enter the stalls until the horse’s noisome leavings were taken away.) nomadic (adj.) wandering from place to place (In the first six months after college, Jose led a nomadic life, living in New York, California, and Idaho.) nominal (adj.) trifling, insignificant (Because he was moving the following week and needed to get rid of his furniture more than he needed money, Jordan sold everything for a nominal fee.) nonchalant (adj.) having a lack of concern, indifference (Although deep down she was very angry, Marsha acted in a nonchalant manner when she found out that her best friend had used her clothing without asking.) nondescript (adj.) lacking a distinctive character (I was surprised when I saw the movie star in person because she looked nondescript.) notorious (adj.) widely and unfavorably known (Jacob was notorious for always arriving late at parties.) novice (n.) a beginner, someone without training or experience (Because we were all novices at yoga, our instructor decided to begin with the basics.) noxious (adj.) harmful, unwholesome (Environmentalists showed that the noxious weeds were destroying the insects’ natural habitats.) nuance (n.) a slight variation in meaning, tone, expression (The nuances of the poem were not obvious to the casual reader, but the professor was able to point them out.) nurture (v.) to assist the development of (Although Serena had never watered the plant, which was about to die, Javier was able to nurture it back to life.) O obdurate (adj.) unyielding to persuasion or moral influences (The obdurate old man refused to take pity on the kittens.) obfuscate (v.) to render incomprehensible (The detective did want to answer the newspaperman’s questions, so he obfuscated the truth.) O oblique (adj.) diverging from a straight line or course, not straightforward (Martin’s oblique language confused those who listened to him.) oblivious (adj.) lacking consciousness or awareness of something (Oblivious to the burning smell emanating from the kitchen, my father did not notice that the rolls in the oven were burned until much too late.) obscure (adj.) unclear, partially hidden (Because he was standing in the shadows, his features were obscure.) obsequious (adj.) excessively compliant or submissive (Mark acted like Janet’s servant, obeying her every request in an obsequious manner.) obsolete (adj.) no longer used, out of date (With the inventions of tape decks and CDs, which both have better sound and are easier to use, eight-track players are now entirely obsolete.) obstinate (adj.) not yielding easily, stubborn (The obstinate child refused to leave the store until his mother bought him a candy bar.) obstreperous (adj.) noisy, unruly (Billy’s obstreperous behavior prompted the librarian to ask him to leave the reading room.) obtuse (adj.) lacking quickness of sensibility or intellect (Political opponents warned that the prime minister’s obtuse approach to foreign policy would embroil the nation in mindless war.) odious (adj.) instilling hatred or intense displeasure (Mark was assigned the odious task of cleaning the cat’s litter box.) officious (adj.) offering one’s services when they are neither wanted nor needed (Brenda resented Allan’s officious behavior when he selected colors that might best improve her artwork.) ominous (adj.) foreboding or foreshadowing evil (The fortuneteller’s ominous words flashed through my mind as the hooded figure approached me in the alley.) onerous (adj.) burdensome (My parents lamented that the pleasures of living in a beautiful country estate no longer outweighed the onerous mortgage payments.) opulent (adj.) characterized by rich abundance verging on ostentation (The opulent furnishings of the dictator’s private compound contrasted harshly with the meager accommodations of her subjects.) oration (n.) a speech delivered in a formal or ceremonious manner (The prime minister was visibly shaken when the unruly parliament interrupted his oration about failed domestic policies.) ornate (adj.) highly elaborate, excessively decorated (The ornate styling of the new model of luxury car could not compensate for the poor quality of its motor.) orthodox (adj.) conventional, conforming to established protocol (The company’s profits dwindled because the management pursued orthodox business policies that were incompatible with new industrial trends.) oscillate (v.) to sway from one side to the other (My uncle oscillated between buying a station wagon to transport his family and buying a sports car to satisfy his boyhood fantasies.) ostensible (adj.) appearing as such, seemingly (Jack’s ostensible reason for driving was that airfare was too expensive, but in reality, he was afraid of flying.) ostentatious (adj.) excessively showy, glitzy (On the palace tour, the guide focused on the ostentatious decorations and spoke little of the royal family’s history.) ostracism (n.) exclusion from a group (Beth risked ostracism if her roommates discovered her flatulence.) P pacific (adj.) soothing (The chemistry professor’s pacific demeanor helped the class remain calm after the experiment exploded.) palatable (adj.) agreeable to the taste or sensibilities (Despite the unpleasant smell, the exotic cheese was quite palatable.) palette (adj.) a range of colors or qualities (The palette of colors utilized in the painting was equaled only by the range of intense emotions the piece evoked.) palliate (v.) to reduce the severity of (The doctor trusted that the new medication would palliate her patient’s discomfort.) pallid (adj.) lacking color (Dr. Van Helsing feared that Lucy’s pallid complexion was due to an unexplained loss of blood.) panacea (n.) a remedy for all ills or difficulties (Doctors wish there was a single panacea for every disease, but sadly there is not.) paradigm (n.) an example that is a perfect pattern or model (Because the new SUV was so popular, it became the paradigm upon which all others were modeled.) paradox (n.) an apparently contradictory statement that is perhaps true (The diplomat refused to acknowledge the paradox that negotiating a peace treaty would demand more resources than waging war.) paragon (n.) a model of excellence or perfection (The mythical Helen of Troy was considered a paragon of female beauty.) paramount (adj.) greatest in importance, rank, character (It was paramount that the bomb squad disconnect the blue wire before removing the fuse.) pariah (n.) an outcast (Following the discovery of his plagiarism, Professor Hurley was made a pariah in all academic circles.) parody (n.) a satirical imitation (A hush fell over the classroom when the teacher returned to find Deborah acting out a parody of his teaching style.) parsimony (n.) frugality, stinginess (Many relatives believed that my aunt’s wealth resulted from her parsimony.) partisan (n.) a follower, adherent (The king did not believe that his rival could round up enough partisans to overthrow the monarchy.) patent (adj.) readily seen or understood, clear (The reason for Jim’s abdominal pain was made patent after the doctor performed a sonogram.) pathology (n.) a deviation from the normal (Dr. Hastings had difficulty identifying the precise nature of Brian’s pathology.) pathos (n.) an emotion of sympathy (Martha filled with pathos upon discovering the scrawny, shivering kitten at her door.) paucity (adj.) small in quantity (Gilbert lamented the paucity of twentieth century literature courses available at the college.) pejorative (adj.) derogatory, uncomplimentary (The evening’s headline news covered an international scandal caused by a pejorative statement the famous senator had made in reference to a foreign leader.) pellucid (adj.) easily intelligible, clear (Wishing his book to be pellucid to the common man, Albert Camus avoided using complicated grammar when composing The Stranger.) penchant (n.) a tendency, partiality, preference (Jill’s dinner parties quickly became monotonous on account of her penchant for Mexican dishes.) penitent (adj.) remorseful, regretful (The jury’s verdict may have been more lenient if the criminal had appeared penitent for his gruesome crimes.) penultimate (adj.) next to last (Having smoked the penultimate cigarette remaining in the pack, Cybil discarded the last cigarette and resolved to quit smoking.) penurious (adj.) miserly, stingy (Stella complained that her husband’s penurious ways made it impossible to live the lifestyle she felt she deserved.) perfidious (adj.) disloyal, unfaithful (After the official was caught selling government secrets to enemy agents, he was executed for his perfidious ways.) perfunctory (adj.) showing little interest or enthusiasm (The radio broadcaster announced the news of the massacre in a surprisingly perfunctory manner.) permeate (v.) to spread throughout, saturate (Mrs. Huxtable was annoyed that the wet dog’s odor had permeated the furniture’s upholstery.) pernicious (adj.) extremely destructive or harmful (The new government feared that the Communist sympathizers would have a pernicious influence on the nation’s stability.) perplex (v.) to confuse (Brad was perplexed by his girlfriend’s suddenly distant manner.) perspicacity (adj.) shrewdness, perceptiveness (The detective was too humble to acknowledge that his perspicacity was the reason for his professional success.) pert (adj.) flippant, bold (My parents forgave Sandra’s pert humor at the dinner table because it had been so long since they had last seen her.) pertinacious (adj.) stubbornly persistent (Harry’s parents were frustrated with his pertinacious insistence that a monster lived in his closet. Then they opened the closet door and were eaten.) perusal (n.) a careful examination, review (The actor agreed to accept the role after a two-month perusal of the movie script.) pervasive (adj.) having the tendency to spread throughout (Stepping off the plane in Havana, I recognized the pervasive odor of sugar cane fields on fire.) petulance (n.) rudeness, irritability (The Nanny resigned after she could no longer tolerate the child’s petulance.) philanthropic (adj.) charitable, giving (Many people felt that the billionaire’s decision to donate her fortune to house the homeless was the ultimate philanthropic act.) phlegmatic (adj.) uninterested, unresponsive (Monique feared her dog was ill after the animal’s phlegmatic response to his favorite chew toy.) pillage (v.) to seize or plunder, especially in war (Invading enemy soldiers pillaged the homes scattered along the country’s border.) pinnacle (n.) the highest point (Book reviewers declared that the author’s new novel was extraordinary and probably the pinnacle of Western literature.) pithy (adj.) concisely meaningful (My father’s long-winded explanation was a stark contrast to his usually pithy statements.) pittance (n.) a very small amount, especially relating to money (Josh complained that he was paid a pittance for the great amount of work he did at the firm.) placate (v.) to ease the anger of, soothe (The man purchased a lollipop to placate his irritable son.) placid (adj.) calm, peaceful (The placid lake surface was as smooth as glass.) platitude (n.) an uninspired remark, cliché (After reading over her paper, Helene concluded that what she thought were profound insights were actually just platitudes.) plaudits (n.) enthusiastic approval, applause (The controversial new film received plaudits from even the harshest critics.) plausible (adj.) believable, reasonable (He studied all the data and then came up with a plausible theory that took all factors into account.) plenitude (n.) an abundance (My grandmother was overwhelmed by the plenitude of tomatoes her garden yielded this season.) plethora (n.) an abundance, excess (The wedding banquet included a plethora of oysters piled almost three feet high.) pliable (adj.) flexible (Aircraft wings are designed to be somewhat pliable so they do not break in heavy turbulence.) poignant (adj.) deeply affecting, moving (My teacher actually cried after reading to us the poignant final chapter of the novel.) polemic (n.) an aggressive argument against a specific opinion (My brother launched into a polemic against my arguments that capitalism was an unjust economic system.) portent (n.) an omen (When a black cat crossed my sister’s path while she was walking to school, she took it as a portent that she would do badly on her spelling test.) potable (adj.) suitable for drinking (During sea voyages it is essential that ships carry a supply of potable water because salty ocean water makes anyone who drinks it sick.) potentate (n.) one who has great power, a ruler (All the villagers stood along the town’s main road to observe as the potentate’s procession headed towards the capital.) pragmatic (adj.) practical (The politician argued that while increased security measures might not fit with the lofty ideals of the nation, they were a pragmatic necessity to ensure everyone’s safety.) precipice (n.) the face of a cliff, a steep or overhanging place (The mountain climber hung from a precipice before finding a handhold and pulling himself up.) preclude (v.) to prevent (My grandfather’s large and vicious guard dog precluded anyone from entering the yard.) precocious (adj.) advanced, developing ahead of time (Derek was so academically precocious that by the time he was 10 years old, he was already in the ninth grade.) predilection (n.) a preference or inclination for something (Francois has a predilection for eating scrambled eggs with ketchup, though I prefer to eat eggs without any condiments.) preponderance (adj.) superiority in importance or quantity (Britain’s preponderance of naval might secured the nation’s role as a military power.) prepossessing (adj.) occupying the mind to the exclusion of other thoughts or feelings (His prepossessing appearance made it impossible for me to think of anything else.) presage (n.) an omen (When my uncle’s old war injury ached, he interpreted it as a presage of bad weather approaching.) prescient (adj.) to have foreknowledge of events (Questioning the fortune cookie’s prediction, Ray went in search of the old hermit who was rumored to be prescient.) prescribe (v.) to lay down a rule (The duke prescribed that from this point further all of the peasants living on his lands would have to pay higher taxes.) presumptuous (adj.) disrespectfully bold (The princess grew angry after the presumptuous noble tried to kiss her, even though he was far below her in social status.) pretense (n.)an appearance or action intended to deceive (Though he actually wanted to use his parents’ car to go on a date, Nick borrowed his parents’ car under the pretense of attending a group study session.) primeval (adj.) original, ancient (The first primates to walk on two legs, called Australopithecus, were the primeval descendants of modern man.) privation (n.) lacking basic necessities (After decades of rule by an oppressive government that saw nothing wrong with stealing from its citizens, the recent drought only increased the people’s privation.) probity (n.) virtue, integrity (Because he was never viewed as a man of great probity, no one was surprised by Mr. Samson’s immoral behavior.) proclivity (n.) a strong inclination toward something (In a sick twist of fate, Harold’s childhood proclivity for torturing small animals grew into a desire to become a surgeon.) procure (v.) to obtain, acquire (The FBI was unable to procure sufficient evidence to charge the gangster with racketeering.) profane (adj.) lewd, indecent (Jacob’s profane act of dumping frogs in the holy water in the chapel at his boarding school resulted in his dismissal.) profligate (adj.) dissolute, extravagant (The profligate gambler loved to drink, spend money, steal, cheat, and hang out with prostitutes.) profuse (adj.) plentiful, abundant (The fans were profuse in their cheers for the star basketball player.) promulgate (v.) to proclaim, make known (The film professor promulgated that both in terms of sex appeal and political intrigue, Sean Connery’s James Bond was superior to Roger Moore’s.) propagate (v.) to multiply, spread out (Rumors of Paul McCartney’s demise propagated like wildfire throughout the world.) propensity (n.) an inclination, preference (Dermit has a propensity for dangerous activities such as bungee jumping.) propitious (adj.) favorable (The dark storm clouds visible on the horizon suggested that the weather would not be propitious for sailing.) propriety (n.) the quality or state of being proper, decent (Erma’s old-fashioned parents believed that her mini-skirt lacked the propriety expected of a “nice” girl.) Q prosaic (adj.) plain, lacking liveliness (Heather’s prosaic recital of the poem bored the audience.) proscribe (v.) to condemn, outlaw (The town council voted to proscribe the sale of alcohol on weekends.) protean (adj.)able to change shape; displaying great variety (Among Nigel’s protean talents was his ability to touch the tip of his nose with his tongue.) prowess (n.) extraordinary ability (The musician had never taken a guitar lesson in his life, making his prowess with the instrument even more incredible.) prudence (n.) cautious, circumspect (After losing a fortune in a stock market crash, my father vowed to practice greater prudence in future investments.) prurient (adj.) eliciting or possessing an extraordinary interest in sex (David’s mother was shocked by the discovery of prurient reading material hidden beneath her son’s mattress.) puerile (adj.) juvenile, immature (The judge demanded order after the lawyer’s puerile attempt to object by stomping his feet on the courtroom floor.) pugnacious (adj.) quarrelsome, combative (Aaron’s pugnacious nature led him to start several barroom brawls each month.) pulchritude (n.) physical beauty (Several of Shakespeare’s sonnets explore the pulchritude of a lovely young man.) punctilious (adj.) eager to follow rules or conventions (Punctilious Bobby, hall monitor extraordinaire, insisted that his peers follow the rules.) pungent (adj.) having a pointed, sharp quality—often used to describe smells (The pungent odor in the classroom made Joseph lose his concentration during the test.) punitive (adj.) involving punishment (If caught smoking in the boys’ room, the punitive result is immediate expulsion from school.) putrid (adj.) rotten, foul (Those rotten eggs smell putrid.) Q quagmire (n.) a difficult situation (We’d all like to avoid the kind of military quagmire characterized by the Vietnam War.) quaint (adj.) charmingly old-fashioned (Hilda was delighted by the quaint bonnets she saw in Amish country.) quandary (n.) a perplexed, unresolvable state (Carlos found himself in a quandary: should he choose mint chocolate chip or cookie dough?) quell (v.) to control or diffuse a potentially explosive situation (The skilled leader deftly quelled the rebellion.) querulous (adj.) whiny, complaining (If deprived of his pacifier, young Brendan becomes querulous.) quixotic (adj.) idealistic, impractical (Edward entertained a quixotic desire to fall in love at first sight in a laundromat.) quotidian (adj.) daily (Ambika’s quotidian routines include drinking two cups of coffee in the morning.) R rail (v.) to scold, protest (The professor railed against the injustice of the college’s tenure policy.) rancid (adj.) having a terrible taste or smell (Rob was double-dog-dared to eat the rancid egg salad sandwich.) rancor (n.) deep, bitter resentment (When Eileen challenged me to a fight, I could see the rancor in her eyes.) rapport (n.) mutual understanding and harmony (When Margaret met her paramour, they felt an instant rapport.) rash (adj.) hasty, incautious (It’s best to think things over calmly and thoroughly, rather than make rash decisions.) raucous (adj.) loud, boisterous (Sarah’s neighbors called the cops when her house party got too raucous.) raze (v.) to demolish, level (The old tenement house was razed to make room for the large chain store.) rebuke (v.) to scold, criticize (When the cops showed up at Sarah’s party, they rebuked her for disturbing the peace.) recalcitrant (adj.) defiant, unapologetic (Even when scolded, the recalcitrant young girl simply stomped her foot and refused to finish her lima beans.) recapitulate (v.) to sum up, repeat (Before the final exam, the teacher recapitulated the semester’s material.) reciprocate (v.) to give in return (When Steve gave Samantha a sweater for Christmas, she reciprocated by giving him a kiss.) reclusive (adj.) solitary, shunning society (Reclusive authors such as J.D. Salinger do not relish media attention and sometimes even enjoy holing up in remote cabins in the woods.) reconcile 1. (v.) to return to harmony (The feuding neighbors finally reconciled when one brought the other a delicious tuna noodle casserole.) 2. (v.) to make consistent with existing ideas (Alou had to reconcile his skepticism about the existence of aliens with the fact that he was looking at a flying saucer.) rectitude (n.) uprightness, extreme morality (The priest’s rectitude gave him the moral authority to counsel his parishioners.) redoubtable 1. (adj.) formidable (The fortress looked redoubtable set against a stormy sky.) 2. (adj.) commanding respect (The audience greeted the redoubtable speaker with a standing ovation.) refract (v.) to distort, change (The light was refracted as it passed through the prism.) refurbish (v.) to restore, clean up (The dingy old chair, after being refurbished, commanded the handsome price of $200.) refute (v.) to prove wrong (Maria refuted the president’s argument as she yelled and gesticulated at the TV.) regurgitate 1. (v.) to vomit (Feeling sick, Chuck regurgitated his dinner.) 2. (v.) to throw back exactly (Margaret rushed through the test, regurgitating all of the facts she’d memorized an hour earlier.) relegate 1. (v.) to assign to the proper place (At the astrology conference, Simon was relegated to the Scorpio room.) 2. (v.) to assign to an inferior place (After spilling a drink on a customer’s shirt, the waiter found himself relegated to the least lucrative shift.) relish (v.) to enjoy (Pete always relished his bedtime snack.) remedial (adj.) intended to repair gaps in students’ basic knowledge (After his teacher discovered he couldn’t read, Alex was forced to enroll in remedial English.) remiss (adj.) negligent, failing to take care (The burglar gained entrance because the security guard, remiss in his duties, forgot to lock the door.) renovate 1. (v.) restore, return to original state (The renovated antique candelabra looked as good as new.) 2. (v.) to enlarge and make prettier, especially a house (After getting renovated, the house was twice as big and much more attractive.) renown (n.) honor, acclaim (The young writer earned international renown by winning the Pulitzer Prize.) renunciation (n.) to reject (Fiona’s renunciation of red meat resulted in weight loss, but confused those people who thought she’d been a vegetarian for years.) repentant (adj.) penitent, sorry (The repentant Dennis apologized profusely for breaking his mother’s vase.) replete (adj.) full, abundant (The unedited version was replete with naughty words.) repose (v.) to rest, lie down (The cat, after eating an entire can of tuna fish, reposed in the sun and took a long nap.) reprehensible (adj.) deserving rebuke (Jean’s cruel and reprehensible attempt to dump her boyfriend on his birthday led to tears and recriminations.) reprieve (n.) a temporary delay of punishment (Because the governor woke up in a particularly good mood, he granted hundreds of reprieves to prisoners.) reproach (v.) to scold, disapprove (Brian reproached the customer for failing to rewind the video he had rented.) reprobate (adj.) evil, unprincipled (The reprobate criminal sat sneering in the cell.) reprove (v.) to scold, rebuke (Lara reproved her son for sticking each and every one of his fingers into the strawberry pie.) repudiate (v.) to reject, refuse to accept (Kwame made a strong case for an extension of his curfew, but his mother repudiated it with a few biting words.) repulse 1. (v.) to disgust (Antisocial Annie tried to repulse people by neglecting to brush her teeth.) 2. (v.) to push back (With a deft movement of her wrist and a punch to the stomach, Lacy repulsed Jack’s attempt to kiss her.) reputable (adj.) of good reputation (After the most reputable critic in the industry gave the novel a glowing review, sales took off.) requisition (n.) a demand for goods, usually made by an authority (During the war, the government made a requisition of supplies.) rescind (v.) to take back, repeal (The company rescinded its offer of employment after discovering that Jane’s resume was full of lies.) reservoir 1. (n.) reserves, large supply (Igor the Indomitable had quite a reservoir of strengh and could lift ten tons, even after running 700 miles, jumping over three mountains, and swimming across an ocean.) 2. (n.) a body of water used for storing water (After graduation, the more rebellious members of the senior class jumped into the town reservoir used for drinking water.) resilient (adj.) able to recover from misfortune; able to withstand adversity (The resilient ballplayer quickly recovered from his wrist injury.) resolute (adj.) firm, determined (With a resolute glint in her eye, Catherine announced that she was set on going to college in New York City even though she was a little frightened of tall buildings.) resolve 1. (v.) to find a solution (Sarah and Emma resolved their differences and shook hands.) 2. (v.) to firmly decide (Lady Macbeth resolved to whip her husband into shape.) respite (n.) a break, rest (Justin left the pub to gain a brief respite from the smoke and noise.) resplendent (adj.) shiny, glowing (The partygoers were resplendent in diamonds and fancy dress.) restitution (n.) restoration to the rightful owner (Many people feel that descendants of slaves should receive restitution for the sufferings of their ancestors.) restive (adj.) resistant, stubborn, impatient (The restive audience pelted the band with mud and yelled nasty comments.) retract (v.) withdraw (As the media worked itself into a frenzy, the publicist hurriedly retracted his client’s sexist statement.) revel (v.) to enjoy intensely (Theodore reveled in his new status as Big Man on Campus.) revere (v.) to esteem, show deference, venerate (The doctor saved countless lives with his combination of expertise and kindness and became universally revered.) revoke (v.) to take back (After missing the curfew set by the court for eight nights in a row, Marcel’s freedom of movement was revoked.) rhapsodize (v.) to engage in excessive enthusiasm (The critic rhapsodized about the movie, calling it an instant classic.) ribald (adj.) coarsely, crudely humorous (While some giggled at the ribald joke involving a parson’s daughter, most sighed and rolled their eyes.) rife (adj.) abundant (Surprisingly, the famous novelist’s writing was rife with spelling errors.) ruminate (v.) to contemplate, reflect (Terry liked to ruminate while sitting on the banks of the river, staring pensively into the water.) ruse (n.) a trick (Oliver concocted an elaborate ruse for sneaking out of the house to meet his girlfriend while simultaneously giving his mother the impression that he was asleep in bed.) S saccharine (adj.) sickeningly sweet (Tom’s saccharine manner, although intended to make him popular, actually repelled his classmates.) sacrosanct (adj.) holy, something that should not be criticized (In the United States, the Constitution is often thought of as a sacrosanct document.) sagacity (n.) shrewdness, soundness of perspective (With remarkable sagacity, the wise old man predicted and thwarted his children’s plan to ship him off to a nursing home.) salient (adj.) significant, conspicuous (One of the salient differences between Alison and Nancy is that Alison is a foot taller.) salutation (n.) a greeting (Andrew regularly began letters with the bizarre salutation “Ahoy ahoy.”) salve (n.) a soothing balm (After Tony applied a salve to his brilliant red sunburn, he soon felt a little better.) sanctimonious (adj.) giving a hypocritical appearance of piety (The sanctimonious Bertrand delivered stern lectures on the Ten Commandments to anyone who would listen, but thought nothing of stealing cars to make some cash on the side.) sanguine (adj.) optimistic, cheery (Polly reacted to any bad news with a sanguine smile and the chirpy cry, “When life hands you lemons, make lemonade!”) satiate (v.) to satisfy excessively (Satiated after eating far too much turkey and stuffing, Liza lay on the couch watching football and suffering from stomach pains.) scathing (adj.) sharp, critical, hurtful (Two hours after breaking up with Russell, Suzanne thought of the perfect scathing retort to his accusations.) S scintillating (adj.) sparkling (The ice skater’s scintillating rhinestone costume nearly blinded the judges.) scrupulous (adj.) painstaking, careful (With scrupulous care, Sam cut a snowflake out of white paper.) scurrilous (adj.) vulgar, coarse (When Bruno heard the scurrilous accusation being made about him, he could not believe it because he always tried to be nice to everyone.) sedentary (adj.) sitting, settled (The sedentary cat did little but loll in the sun.) semaphore (n.) a visual signal (Anne and Diana communicated with a semaphore involving candles and window shades.) seminal (adj.) original, important, creating a field (Stephen Greenblatt’s essays on Shakespeare proved to be seminal, because they initiated the critical school of New Historicism.) sensual (adj.) involving sensory gratification, usually related to sex (With a coy smile, the guest on the blind-date show announced that he considered himself a very sensual person.) sensuous (adj.) involving sensory gratification (Paul found drinking Coke, with all the little bubbles bursting on his tongue, a very sensuous experience.) serendipity (n.) luck, finding good things without looking for them (In an amazing bit of serendipity, penniless Paula found a $20 bill in the subway station.) serene (adj.) calm, untroubled (Louise stood in front of the Mona Lisa, puzzling over the famous woman’s serene smile.) servile (adj.) subservient (The servile porter crept around the hotel lobby, bowing and quaking before the guests.) sinuous (adj.) lithe, serpentine (With the sinuous movements of her arms, the dancer mimicked the motion of a snake.) sobriety (n.) sedate, calm (Jason believed that maintaining his sobriety in times of crisis was the key to success in life.) solicitous (adj.) concerned, attentive (Jim, laid up in bed with a nasty virus, enjoyed the solicitous attentions of his mother, who brought him soup and extra blankets.) solipsistic (adj.) believing that oneself is all that exists (Colette’s solipsistic attitude completely ignored the plight of the homeless people on the street.) soluble (adj.) able to dissolve (The plot of the spy film revolved around an untraceable and water-soluble poison.) solvent 1. (n.) a substance that can dissolve other substances (Water is sometimes called the universal solvent because almost all other substances can dissolve into it.) 2. (adj.) able to pay debts (Upon receiving an unexpected check from her aunt, Annabelle found herself suddenly solvent.) somnolent (adj.) sleepy, drowsy (The somnolent student kept falling asleep and waking up with a jerk.) sophomoric (adj.) immature, uninformed (The mature senior rolled her eyes at the sophomoric gross-out humor of the underclassman.) sovereign (adj.) having absolute authority in a certain realm (The sovereign queen, with steely resolve, ordered that the traitorous nobleman be killed.) speculative (adj.) not based in fact (Sadly, Tessa was convicted on merely speculative evidence.) spurious (adj.) false but designed to seem plausible (Using a spurious argument, John convinced the others that he had won the board game on a technicality.) stagnate (v.) to become or remain inactive, not develop, not flow (With no room for advancement, the waiter’s career stagnated.) staid (adj.) sedate, serious, self-restrained (The staid butler never changed his expression no matter what happened.) stingy (adj.) not generous, not inclined to spend or give (Scrooge’s stingy habits did not fit with the generous, giving spirit of Christmas.) stoic (adj.) unaffected by passion or feeling (Penelope’s faithfulness to Odysseus required that she be stoic and put off her many suitors.) stolid (adj.) expressing little sensibility, unemotional (Charles’s stolid reaction to his wife’s funeral differed from the passion he showed at the time of her death.) strenuous (adj.) requiring tremendous energy or stamina (Running a marathon is quite a strenuous task. So is watching an entire Star Trek marathon.) strident (adj.) harsh, loud (A strident man, Captain Von Trapp yelled at his daughter and made her cry.) stupefy (v.) to astonish, make insensible (Veronica’s audacity and ungratefulness stupefied her best friend, Heather.) T subjugate (v.) to bring under control, subdue (The invading force captured and subjugated the natives of that place.) sublime (adj.) lofty, grand, exalted (The homeless man sadly pondered his former wealth and once sublime existence.) submissive (adj.) easily yielding to authority (In some cultures, wives are supposed to be submissive and support their husbands in all matters.) succinct (adj.) marked by compact precision (The governor’s succinct speech energized the crowd while the mayor’s rambled on and on.) superfluous (adj.) exceeding what is necessary (Tracy had already won the campaign so her constant flattery of others was superfluous.) surfeit (n.) an overabundant supply or indulgence (After partaking of the surfeit of tacos and tamales at the All-You-Can-Eat Taco Tamale Lunch Special, Beth felt rather sick.) surmise (v.) to infer with little evidence (After speaking to only one of the students, the teacher was able to surmise what had caused the fight.) surreptitious (adj.) stealthy (The surreptitious CIA agents were able to get in and out of the house without anyone noticing.) surrogate (n.) one acting in place of another (The surrogate carried the child to term for its biological parents.) swarthy (adj.) of dark color or complexion (When he got drunk, Robinson’s white skin became rather swarthy.) sycophant (n.) one who flatters for self-gain (Some see the people in the cabinet as the president’s closest advisors, but others see them as sycophants.) T tacit (adj.) expressed without words (I interpreted my parents’ refusal to talk as a tacit acceptance of my request.) taciturn (adj.) not inclined to talk (Though Jane never seems to stop talking, her brother is quite taciturn.) tangential (adj.) incidental, peripheral, divergent (I tried to discuss my salary, but the boss kept veering off into tangential topics.) tantamount (adj.) equivalent in value or significance (When it comes to sports, fearing your opponent is tantamount to losing.) T tedious (adj.) dull, boring (As time passed and the history professor continued to drone on and on, the lecture became increasingly tedious.) temerity (n.) audacity, recklessness (Tom and Huck entered the scary cave armed with nothing but their own temerity.) temperance (n.) moderation in action or thought (Maintaining temperance will ensure that you are able to think rationally and objectively.) tenable (adj.) able to be defended or maintained (The department heads tore down the arguments in other people’s theses, but Johari’s work proved to be quite tenable.) tenuous (adj.) having little substance or strength (Your argument is very tenuous, since it relies so much on speculation and hearsay.) terrestrial (adj.) relating to the land (Elephants are terrestrial animals.) timorous (adj.) timid, fearful (When dealing with the unknown, timorous Tallulah almost always broke into tears.) tirade (n.) a long speech marked by harsh or biting language (Every time Jessica was late, her boyfriend went into a long tirade about punctuality.) toady (n.) one who flatters in the hope of gaining favors (The other kids referred to the teacher’s pet as the Tenth Grade Toady.) tome (n.) a large book (In college, I used to carry around an anatomy book that was the heaviest tome in my bag.) torpid (adj.) lethargic, dormant, lacking motion (The torpid whale floated, wallowing in the water for hours.) torrid (adj.) giving off intense heat, passionate (I didn’t want to witness the neighbor’s torrid affair through the window.) tortuous (adj.) winding (The scary thing about driving in mountains are the narrow, tortuous roads.) tractable (adj.) easily controlled (The horse was so tractable, Myra didn’t even need a bridle.) tranquil (adj.) calm (There is a time of night when nothing moves and everything is tranquil.) transgress (v.) to violate, go over a limit (The criminal’s actions transgressed morality and human decency.) U transient (adj.) passing through briefly; passing into and out of existence (Because virtually everyone in Palm Beach is a tourist, the population of the town is quite transient.) transmute (v.) to change or alter in form (Ancient alchemists believed that it was possible to transmute lead into gold.) travesty (n.) a grossly inferior imitation (According to the school newspaper’s merciless theater critic, Pacific Coast High’s rendition of the musical Oklahoma was a travesty of the original.) tremulous (adj.) fearful (I always feel a trifle tremulous when walking through a graveyard.) trenchant (adj.) effective, articulate, clear-cut (The directions that accompanied my new cell phone were trenchant and easy to follow.) trepidation (n.) fear, apprehension (Feeling great trepidation, Anya refused to jump into the pool because she thought she saw a shark in it.) trite (adj.) not original, overused (Keith thought of himself as being very learned, but everyone else thought he was trite because his observations about the world were always the same as David Letterman’s.) truculent (adj.) ready to fight, cruel (This club doesn’t really attract the dangerous types, so why was that bouncer being so truculent?) truncate (v.) to shorten by cutting off (After winning the derby, the jockey truncated the long speech he had planned and thanked only his mom and his horse.) turgid (adj.) swollen, excessively embellished in style or language (The haughty writer did not realize how we all really felt about his turgid prose.) turpitude (n.) depravity, moral corruption (Sir Marcus’s chivalry often contrasted with the turpitude he exhibited with the ladies at the tavern.) U ubiquitous (adj.) existing everywhere, widespread (It seems that everyone in the United States has a television. The technology is ubiquitous here.) umbrage (n.) resentment, offense (He called me a lily-livered coward, and I took umbrage at the insult.) V uncanny (adj.) of supernatural character or origin (Luka had an uncanny ability to know exactly what other people were thinking. She also had an uncanny ability to shoot fireballs from her hands.) unctuous (adj.) smooth or greasy in texture, appearance, manner (The unctuous receptionist seemed untrustworthy, as if she was only being helpful because she thought we might give her a big tip.) undulate (v.) to move in waves (As the storm began to brew, the placid ocean began to undulate to an increasing degree.) upbraid (v.) to criticize or scold severely (The last thing Lindsay wanted was for Lisa to upbraid her again about missing the rent payment.) usurp (v.) to seize by force, take possession of without right (The rogue army general tried to usurp control of the government, but he failed because most of the army backed the legally elected president.) utilitarian (adj.) relating to or aiming at usefulness (The beautiful, fragile vase couldn’t hold flowers or serve any other utilitarian purpose.) utopia (n.) an imaginary and remote place of perfection (Everyone in the world wants to live in a utopia, but no one can agree how to go about building one.) V vacillate (v.) to fluctuate, hesitate (I prefer a definite answer, but my boss kept vacillating between the distinct options available to us.) vacuous (adj.) lack of content or ideas, stupid (Beyonce realized that the lyrics she had just penned were completely vacuous and tried to add more substance.) validate (v.) to confirm, support, corroborate (Yoko’s chemistry lab partner was asleep during the experiment and could not validate the accuracy of her methods.) vapid (adj.) lacking liveliness, dull (The professor’s comments about the poem were surprisingly vapid and dull.) variegated (adj.) diversified, distinctly marked (Each wire in the engineering exam was variegated by color so that the students could figure out which one was which.) vehemently (adv.) marked by intense force or emotion (The candidate vehemently opposed cutting back on Social Security funding.) V veneer (n.) a superficial or deceptively attractive appearance, façade (Thanks to her Chanel makeup, Shannen was able to maintain a veneer of perfection that hid the flaws underneath.) venerable (adj.) deserving of respect because of age or achievement (The venerable Supreme Court justice had made several key rulings in landmark cases throughout the years.) venerate (v.) to regard with respect or to honor (The tribute to John Lennon sought to venerate his music, his words, and his legend.) veracity (n.) truthfulness, accuracy (With several agencies regulating the reports, it was difficult for Latifah to argue against its veracity.) verbose (adj.) wordy, impaired by wordiness (It took the verbose teacher two hours to explain the topic, while it should have taken only fifteen minutes.) verdant (adj.) green in tint or color (The verdant leaves on the trees made the world look emerald.) vestige (n.) a mark or trace of something lost or vanished (Do you know if the Mexican tortilla is a vestige of some form of Aztec corn-based flat bread?) vex (v.) to confuse or annoy (My little brother vexes me by poking me in the ribs for hours on end.) vicarious (adj.) experiencing through another (All of my lame friends learned to be social through vicarious involvement in my amazing experiences.) vicissitude (n.) event that occurs by chance (The vicissitudes of daily life prevent me from predicting what might happen from one day to the next.) vigilant (adj.) watchful, alert (The guards remained vigilant throughout the night, but the enemy never launched the expected attack.) vilify (v.) to lower in importance, defame (After the Watergate scandal, almost any story written about President Nixon sought to vilify him and criticize his behavior.) vindicate (v.) to avenge; to free from allegation; to set free (The attorney had no chance of vindicating the defendant with all of the strong evidence presented by the state.) vindictive (adj.) vengeful (The vindictive madman seeks to exact vengeance for any insult that he perceives is directed at him, no matter how small.) virtuoso (n.) one who excels in an art; a highly skilled musical performer (Even though Lydia has studied piano for many years, she’s only average at it. She’s no virtuoso, that’s for sure.) W viscous (adj.) not free flowing, syrupy (The viscous syrup took three minutes to pour out of the bottle.) vitriolic (adj.) having a caustic quality (When angry, the woman would spew vitriolic insults.) vituperate (v.) to berate (Jack ran away as soon as his father found out, knowing he would be vituperated for his unseemly behavior.) vivacious (adj.) lively, sprightly (The vivacious clown makes all of the children laugh and giggle with his friendly antics.) vocation (n.) the work in which someone is employed, profession (After growing tired of the superficial world of high-fashion, Edwina decided to devote herself to a new vocation: social work.) vociferous (adj.) loud, boisterous (I’m tired of his vociferous whining so I’m breaking up with him.) W wallow (v.) to roll oneself indolently; to become or remain helpless (My roommate can’t get over her breakup with her boyfriend and now just wallows in self-pity.) wane (v.) to decrease in size, dwindle (Don’t be so afraid of his wrath because his influence with the president is already beginning to wane.) wanton (adj.) undisciplined, lewd, lustful (Vicky’s wanton demeanor often made the frat guys next door very excited.) whimsical (adj.) fanciful, full of whims (The whimsical little girl liked to pretend that she was an elvin princess.) wily (adj.) crafty, sly (Though they were not the strongest of the Thundercats, wily Kit and Kat were definitely the most clever and full of tricks.) winsome (adj.) charming, pleasing (After such a long, frustrating day, I was grateful for Chris’s winsome attitude and childish naivete.) wistful (adj.) full of yearning; musingly sad (Since her pet rabbit died, Edda missed it terribly and sat around wistful all day long.) wizened (adj.) dry, shrunken, wrinkled (Agatha’s grandmother, Stephanie, had the most wizened countenance, full of leathery wrinkles.) wrath (n.) vengeful anger, punishment (Did you really want to incur her wrath when she is known for inflicting the worst punishments legally possible?) Y Y yoke (v.) to join, link (We yoked together the logs by tying a string around them.) Z zealous (adj.) fervent, filled with eagerness in pursuit of something (If he were any more zealous about getting his promotion, he’d practically live at the office.) zenith (n.) the highest point, culminating point (I was too nice to tell Nelly that she had reached the absolute zenith of her career with that one hit of hers.) zephyr (n.) a gentle breeze (If not for the zephyrs that were blowing and cooling us, our room would’ve been unbearably hot.)

Band 8 Vocabulary for IELTS abandon: 1. a lack of control or restraint 2. loss of inhibitions 3. exuberance 4. surrender to one's natural impulses abandonment: 1. leaving someone, such as a child or a spouse, voluntarily 2. the act of giving something up 3. the act of letting something or someone go abate: reduce in amount, degree, or intensity; lessen abbreviate: make (a word, phrase, or text) shorter abbreviation: 1. a shortened form of a name, phrase or word 2. the act of shortening something aberrant: different from the right, normal, usual course, expected course or an accepted standard aberration: a departure from what is right, true, correct, etc., typically an unwelcome one abeyance: 1. a temporary stoppage or delay of activity 2. suspension abhor: regard with extreme dislike and hatred abide: 1. to accept 2. to put up with; to tolerate 3. to conform ability: 1. the capacity to do something 2. a skill or talent in a specific area abjure: 1. to officially renounce 2. to formally and publicly announce that one no longer believes in something abnormal: 1. strange 2. not usual or typical 3. not what is considered to be normal aboard: 1. on a boat or any sort of vehicle, such as a train or plane 2. into a group; as a participant abolish: 1. to get rid of in an official way 2. to put an end to 3. to completely destroy abolition: 1. the act of getting rid of something 2. the act of stopping or cancelling something abortion: 1. the medical termination of a pregnancy 2. the failure or premature abandonment of a plan or an undertaking abortive: 1. failed 2. unfinished and therefore unsuccessful 3. imperfect abridge: 1. to make something shorter while keeping the same meaning 2. to condense 3. to reduce abrogate: 1. to officially put an end to something, especially a law or another type of formal agreement abrupt: 1. brusque or curt in behavior or speech 2. unexpected or sudden, most often in an unpleasant or shocking way 3. steep absence: 1. the state or condition of someone or something not being present or not existing 2. a failure to appear absent: 1. not present in a certain time or location 2. non-existent 3. missing absolute: 1. complete, definite or perfect 2. not limited in any way 3. unadulterated absolutely: 1. completely 2. definitely 3. without exception absorb: 1. to incorporate something 2. to soak up or suck up something 3. to gradually take something in absorption: 1. the act or process of taking in or absorbing any substance 2. the state of being mentally engrossed in something; total concentration abstain: deliberately choose not to do or have something that is enjoyable but that may not be healthy, safe, or morally right 2. refrain from voting abstract: 1. not concrete; not related to a physical object or real event 2. expressing or showing feelings instead of real objects or people 3. difficult to understand because of its complexity 4. theoretical absurd: 1. silly or ridiculous, especially in a laughable way 2. illogical or totally untrue 3. difficult or impossible to believe absurdity: 1. the state or quality of being totally ridiculous or absurd 2. nonsense abundance: 1. an extremely large quantity of something 2. a quantity that is considered to be more than enough abundant: 1. great in number 2. available in a large number 3. more than enough; plenty abuse: 1. misuse of something 2. unfair or hurtful treatment of a person or an animal 3. improper use academic: 1. related to school or scholarly subjects 2. theoretical; not practical 3. scholarly; good at studying academy: 1. a professional organization that is created to regulate or spur interest and development in a specific field 2. a school that provides special training in a particular field accede: 1. to formally take on official duties 2. to agree; to give consent 3. to do what someone else says accelerate: 1. to speed up 2. to go faster 3. to make something happen or to happen at a quicker rate than normal acceleration: 1. an increase in speed or rate 2. the ability of something to go faster access: 1. a way of entering or exiting a place 2. the right or permission to use, approach, or enter something or somewhere 3. the act of approaching accessible: 1. obtainable 2. easy to enter, speak with, or approach 3. easily influenced accessory: 1. an object that is added to another in order to make it more useful or attractive 2. a person that helps another person commit a crime, but who does not actually take part in the crime accident: 1. an unforeseen event that causes harm, damage, injury or even death 2. a sudden and unplanned event accidental: 1. unexpected 2. not predicted 3. happening by chance accidentally: 1. by chance 2. unexpectedly 3. by mistake accommodate: 1. to do a favor or oblige someone 2. to supply 3. to provide space for people to stay or to be 4. to adapt or to make suitable accommodation: 1. lodgings used for travelers 2. a place to stay or live accompaniment: 1. something that accompanies something or someone else 2. music that accompanies a singer or the main tune accompany: 1. to go along with 2. to be associated with 3. to go somewhere with someone accomplish: 1. to carry something out; to finish something 2. to be successful in doing something 3. to complete or fulfill accomplishment: 1. fulfillment, success or achievement 2. something that was done successfully accord: concurrence of opinions or wills account: 1. an explanation or description of a specific event or situation 2. a narrative 3. the reasons behind a specific event or action accountant: 1. a person who keeps and prepares financial reports for businesses and individuals accounting: 1. the practice or process of recording and keeping financial records of individuals or corporations accrue: 1. to accumulate over a long period of time 2. to increase 3. to grow in a slow way accumulate: 1. to collect or gather 2. to amass 3. to increase in quantity or amount accumulation: 1. the act of growing or increasing in amount over an extended period of time 2. agglomeration accurate: 1. meticulous or giving careful consideration to the details 2. exact 3. free from errors and mistakes achieve: 1. to accomplish 2. to reach something through hard work 3. to succeed acknowledge: 1. to recognize or admit that something is true 2. to tell someone you have received something 3. to thank someone for something they have done 4. to show someone that you have recognized them by making a gesture acquiesce: 1. to agree to something reticently but without protesting acquire: 1. to obtain 2. to purchase 3. to develop or learn a habit or skill 4. to pinpoint and hold a target or something else through the use of radar or another tracking device acquisition: 1. the act of getting something or gaining possession of a skill or a good 2. something that one gets or gains possession of acrid: 1. a strong, bitter or stinging smell which often creates an unpleasant smell in one's throat 2. a bitter or sharp taste acrimony: sharpness, harshness, or bitterness of nature, temper, manner, or speech acuity: 1. acuteness or sharpness, especially of thought, vision or perception acumen: the ability to think clearly, make good judgments and take quick decision in a particular subject, such as business or politics adamant: 1. refusing to be persuaded, or unwilling to change an opinion or decision in spite of pleas, appeals, or reason; stubbornly unyielding 2. too hard to cut, break, or pierce adapt: 1. to make changes in order to fit a specific situation or purpose 2. to modify 3. to alter something adaptation: 1. the act of modifying something so that it better fits one's needs 2. change; adjustment adept: highly skilled or proficient at doing something; expert adequate: 1. sufficient to fit the requirements or needs 2. good enough, but not excessively good 3. satisfactory adjacent: 1. near 2. close to 3. neighboring 4. touching adjust: 1. to make changes to 2. to settle or adapt to a situation adjustment: 1. a change or modification that makes something more suitable or accurate for the person or situation 2. an adaptation administrate: 1. to direct or manage 2. to control 3. to distribute or give out administration: 1. a person or group that governs or manages a particular organization 2. the act of controlling a particular organization, group or plan adroit: very clever or skillful in a physical or mental way adult: 1. a person or animal that is fully developed or fully grown 2. a mature person or animal adversity: a difficult, unlucky, or unpleasant situation, condition, or event; misfortune; tragedy advocate: 1. publicly speak, write, plead, recommend, support or argue for a cause, particular policy or way of doing things 2. a person who publicly speaks, writes, pleads, recommends, supports or argues for a cause, particular policy or way of doing things aesthetic: 1. relating to beauty or the study or appreciation of beauty or good taste 2. nice to look at affect: 1. to impact someone emotionally or mentally 2. to produce a change in affected: 1. behaving in an artificial way to impress people 2. emotionally stirred or moved 3. impaired, harmed, or attacked, as by climate or disease 4. artificial and not sincere aggregate: 1. to collect or bring together 2. to add amounts together aid: 1. help; assistance 2. a person who helps someone or something 3. a helpful device alacrity: a cheerful readiness, promptness, or willingness to do something albeit: 1. although 2. even if 3. notwithstanding allay: 1. to calm or to lessen negative feelings or pain 2. to pacify 3. to alleviate or relieve alleviate: 1. to make something more bearable or relieve problems or pain 2. to make something less severe or easier allocate: divide and give out (something) for a particular purpose alter: 1. to change or modify 2. to make something different 3. to castrate or spay an animal alternative: 1. not traditional or usual 2. being a choice; offering a choice 3. existing outside traditional society altruistic: unselfishly concerned for or devoted to the welfare of others amalgamate: mix, merge, combine or unite to form one thing ambiguity: 1. the state of being unclear, inexact and open to more than one possible interpretation 2. doubtfulness ambiguous: 1. not expressed or understood clearly 2. open to or having several possible meanings or interpretations amend: 1. to make changes to 2. to improve 3. to alter 4. to remove errors from amendment: 1. a change that is made to something, such as a law, an agreement or any other document 2. a minor change or addition to something amiable: pleasant and friendly; good-natured and likable amicable: characterized by or exhibiting friendliness or goodwill, often despite a difficult situation amorphous: 1. without a defined shape or form 2. unorganized 3. missing a clear structure analogous: 1. similar to 2. alike or related in a way that allows analogies to be drawn analogy: 1. a comparison designed to show that two or more things are similar 2. partial resemblance 3. comparability analyse: 1. to examine something critically 2. to separate something into its parts in order to examine it or better understand it 3. to psychoanalyze analysis: 1. the study or examination of something in an attempt to define it or understand it 2. investigation 3. the act of breaking a subject down into parts to study it anarchy: 1. a lack of government or social control of any sort 2. lawlessness and confusion due to an absence of control or structure anathema: 1. a malediction or a curse 2. something or someone that is considered to be cursed 3. someone or something that is greatly disliked anecdote: a short, often funny story, especially about something some happening, usually personal or biographical animosity: 1. clear negativity or hatred of someone or something 2. strong opposition 3. open hostility annex: 1. to take control or possession over a piece of land without permission and often by the use of force 2. to add or attach 3. annual: 1. occurring each year 2. payable on a yearly basis or calculated over a year 3. yearly anonymous: 1. with no name known or acknowledged 2. made or done by someone unknown 3. having no unusual or interesting features antagonism: 1. unfriendliness or opposition 2. a strong feeling of dislike or hatred towards someone antagonist: a person who opposes to, struggles against, or competes with someone or something, especially in combat; adversary; opponent anthology: 1. a book that contains many different selections, often from various authors 2. a collection of music or different works of art anthropology: the study of human races, origins, societies, beliefs, cultures, and its physical development anticipate: 1. to predict or foresee 2. to look forward to something 3. to prepare for something or deal with something before it happens apparent: 1. clear and able to be seen 2. obvious; evident 3. easily understood appease: 1. to calm a situation 2. to pacify a situation by giving one's enemies what they demand 3. to soothe append: 1. to attach something; to affix 2. to add something to a written work such as a letter or a book appendix: 1. additional material that is found at the end of a book, an essay or another written piece 2. added information appreciate: 1. to become more valuable or increase in worth 2. to be grateful or thankful for 3. to understand the true meaning of a situation appreciation: 1. an increase in value 2. the act of recognizing something's quality, worth, validity, merit, etc. 3. an expression of thanks or gratitude 4. judgment approach: to move nearer appropriate: 1. to take possession or control of something 2. to steal 3. to set aside or to devote to a specific purpose approximate: 1. to come close to something 2. to be similar to something 3. to get near apt: 1. exactly suitable; appropriate 2. likely to do something; having a tendency to do something 3. quick to learn or understand arbitrary: 1. determined in a random way 2. based on preference rather than logic arbitrate: officially try to settle a disagreement between opposing or contending parties or sides after hearing the opinions and ideas of both arcane: known or understood by only a few; secret or mysterious archaic: 1. antiquated 2. belonging to a time in the past 3. old-fashioned archives: 1. a group of documents with some sort of historical or informational value 2. the place where these documents are kept area: 1. a geographical region 2. part of a surface or space 3. a subject or field of study arid: 1. very dry, especially having insufficient rainfall to support trees or plants 2. lacking in interest, excitement, or meaning articulate: 1. capable of expressing oneself in a clear and coherent manner 2. clear and well formulated language aspect: 1. a part or quality of something 2. one part of a situation 3. exposure; the way in which a structure is facing aspire: long, aim, or seek ambitiously to have or achieve something, especially in your career; desire strongly assail: physically attack or severely criticize (someone or something) in a violent or angry way assemble: 1. to put something together by joining its parts 2. to bring people together into one single group assembly: 1. a gathering of people that takes place because the people share a common goal or interest; a meeting 2. a gathering of teachers and students where information is shared assess: 1. to estimate or determine the value of something; to appraise 2. to evaluate assessment: 1. the act of evaluating and judging something 2. one's judgments or observations about a particular subject assiduous: showing hard work, great care, and attention to detail; diligent assign: 1. to give or allocate 2. to appoint 3. to designate 4. to attribute assist: 1. to support or help; to aid assistance: 1. help or support 2. the act of helping or supporting someone assume: 1. to believe that something is true without proof 2. to take on a role or responsibility 3. to adopt an idea assurance: 1. a feeling of confidence in oneself or something else 2. a promise designed to give confidence assure: 1. to assure someone that something is true, in hopes of getting rid of doubts 2. to confidently promise; to pledge 3. to guarantee 4. to make secure or safe astute: 1. crafty 2. possessing the ability to correctly judge situations and use one's observations to take advantage of the situation 3. shrewd asylum: 1. protection, safety, or the right to stay, especially that given by a government to people who has escaped from war or political trouble in their own country 2. an institution for the care of the mentally ill, or of the aged, the poor, etc. attach: 1. to fasten or join two or more objects 2. to include 3. to add a file to an e-mail attached: 1. joined or fastened together somehow 2. connected 3. feeling love or attraction for someone attain: 1. to succeed at something 2. to achieve 3. to reach or arrive at attitude: 1. a feeling or an opinion; a mental position 2. physical posture 3. a way of acting, thinking or feeling attribute: 1. a trait or quality 2. a characteristic augment: 1. to increase something in size, quantity or value 2. to enlarge 3. to enhance August: impressive; majestic; inspiring awe or admiration author: 1. the creator of something 2. the person who writes a document 3. the person responsible for an action authority: 1. power; the ability and right to control 2. the person or group that is in charge of a person, group or region 3. an expert on a specific subject 4. jurisdiction 5. official permission automate: 1. to mechanize a process, replacing people with machines 2. to operate by automation available: 1. free and ready to be used; not busy 2. accessible 3. at someone's disposal avarice: extreme greed to get or keep money or possessions; cupidity aver: 1. say (something) in a very strong and determined way 2. declare in a positive or confident manner aware: 1. cognizant; knowing 2. informed about something 3. conscious of something bard: 1. a poet 2. a poet that composes or recites lyric poetry barrage: 1. a concentrated artillery bombardment to protect one's own advancing or retreating or to stop the advance of enemy troops 2. an artificial barrier across a river or estuary to increase the depth of the water, prevent flooding, facilitate irrigation, etc befuddle: 1. to completely confuse someone 2. to perplex behalf: 1. in the interest of 2. on part of 3. supporting 4. representing beleaguer: 1. to harass or create trouble for 2. to besiege or surround a place, person or group with troops belittle: 1. to disparage or put down 2. to consider something to be less important or make it seem less important 3. to scorn or disparage belligerent: inclined or eager to fight or argue; hostile and aggressive benefit: 1. an advantage 2. a gift or payment from an employer to an employee 3. a payment from an insurance company or social welfare program 4. something intended to help 5. an event designed to raise money for someone or for a cause benevolent: kind, generous, and helpful; charitable benign: 1. not harmful 2. displaying kindness or gentleness 3. beneficial bias: supporting or opposing a particular person or thing in an unfair way, especially in a way considered to be unfair bigot: 1. a person who is intolerant of views other than his or her own 2. a person with a closed-mind blatant: 1. obvious, easily detectable, or blunt 2. noisy in a vulgar way 3. obtrusive bond: 1. the link or connection between people or things 2. a written promise 3. a force that unites or pushes people together 4. a certificate of debt issued by a government or company, promising to pay borrowed money back over a specified period of time bourgeois: 1. middle class and acting in a way that is consistent with what is expected of the middle class 2. materialistic 3. typical, conventional brazen: 1. bold and shameless 2. having a loud, usually harsh, resonant sound breach: 1. an act of breaking or failing to follow a law, rule, trust, faith, promise, agreement, or code of conduct 2. a hole, opening or space in a wall, fence, barrier, or line of defense, especially during a military attack brief: 1. concise 2. short in duration 3. curt 4. scanty brusque: a very direct, brief, and unfriendly way in speech or manner buffet: 1. a table that has food on it, from which diners are expected to choose their own food 2. a meal when diners are expected to choose their own food from a variety of selections 3. a blow or a strike, usually from a hand bulk: 1. the size or mass of something 2. the largest portion or part of something 3. great in quantity bulwark: 1. something or someone which protects one from negative, dangerous or unpleasant things or gives support and encouragement in bad situations 2. a wall built for defense buoyant: 1. able to float 2. cheerful and optimistic bureaucracy: 1. a large government or administration that is divided into various departments, in which the officials must follow a set of inflexible rules 2. a complicated management system which requires compliance with an annoying set of rules or regulations burgeon: 1. grow, increase, expand or develop quickly 2. begin to grow or blossom (as buds or branches) cajole: persuade by flattery or promises; wheedle; coax callous: unkind, cruel, and without sympathy or feeling about the problems or suffering of other people candid: 1. direct or honest, even in situations when the truth is considered to be uncomfortable or unpleasant; frank; straightforward 2. impartial or unbiased 3. unrehearsed or informal candor: 1. the quality or state of being honest or frank, especially when the truth is painful or difficult 2. fairness; impartiality capable: 1. able to do something 2. quite good at a certain task; skilled capacity: 1. the ability to do something 2. the maximum number of things that a place or object can hold capricious: suddenly and unexpectedly changing mood or behavior without any good reason; impulsive and unpredictable catalyst: 1. (Chemistry) a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction 2. somebody, something or an event that quickly causes change or action category: 1. a group of things organized due to the fact that they share a common trait 2. a group or class 3. a division caustic: 1. capable of burning, corroding, destroying, or eating away by chemical action 2. severely critical or sarcastic, often in a funny or clever way cease: 1. to stop doing something; to quit 2. to discontinue 3. to come to an end censure: strong criticism or disapproval of (someone or something), especially in a formal statement chagrin: a feeling of being very annoyed, disappointed, or embarrassed because of failure, disappointment, or humiliation challenge: 1. to question or express objection to 2. to test someone 3. to invite someone to take part in a debate or competition; to dare channel: 1. a route through which water flows or can flow 2. a television or radio station 3. a course of direction through which actions or ideas pass chapter: 1. a section of a book or a written work 2. a branch of a society or group 3. a stage in a person's life chart: 1. a drawing or illustration which displays information in an easy to understand way; a graph 2. a detailed map used for navigation of the sea or air chide: 1. express mild disapproval of (someone) 2. scold mildly so as to correct or improve; reprimand circumscribe: 1. draw a line around; encircle 2. restrict something such as power, rights, or opportunities within limits circumspect: 1. prudent or careful about taking risks 2. cautious and wary about the outcome of an action circumstance: 1. the conditions surrounding an event 2. a factor which influences something circumvent: 1. surround or circle around (an enemy, for example); enclose or entrap 2. avoid (defeat, failure, unpleasantness, etc.), especially cleverly or illegally 3. go around or bypass cite: 1. to use information or exact words from another source; to quote 2. to use as an example civil: 1. not related to the church or military, but rather the ordinary people of a country 2. secular 3. polite or courteous clandestine: kept or done secretly and often illegal clarify: 1. to make something clearer or easier to understand 2. to remove ambiguity clarity: 1. clearness of expression or thought 2. the ability to be understood 3. the ability to think in a clear way classic: 1. typical; traditional; famous 2. extraordinarily good 3. timeless; considered to be good or exceptional over a long period of time classical: 1. relating to ancient cultures 2. respecting tradition or the original way of doing things 3. traditional clause: 1. a provision or stipulation in a contract or another formal document 2. a phrase containing a subject and a verb that is part of a larger sentence clientele: 1. the specific group of customers which patronize a certain establishment or service provider; customer base coalesce: 1. grow together or into one body 2. unite or merge into a single body, group, or mass code: 1. a rule or law which governs an organization or a political region 2. a set of words or images which are used to communicate a message in a secret way or in an abbreviated form coerce: 1. to convince someone to do something by threatening them or using force 2. to use force to get something coercion: 1. persuasion through threats or force 2. using force to convince someone to do something coherence: 1. a logical ordering of things 2. consistency 3. the state of being logical coherent: 1. consistent or logical 2. understandable 3. capable of explaining one's thoughts or ideas in a way that is easily understood 4. unified; sticking together coincide: 1. to happen at the same time 2. to be present at the same time and place 3. to agree with or be in agreement collaborate: 1. work together, especially in a joint intellectual effort 2. cooperate with an enemy who has invaded your country during a war collapse: 1. to cave in due to pressure or lack of support 2. to fall down 3. to break down 4. to fold into a smaller or more compact shape, allowing something to be more easily stored colleague: 1. a coworker 2. someone you work with in the same profession or organization colloquial: 1. not formal 2. familiar and conversational 3. informal commence: 1. to start; to begin 2. to commence 3. to originate comment: 1. to say something 2. to make a remark 3. to explain something through a verbal or written remark commission: 1. a fee or payment for goods or services rendered 2. a request to create a specific work for someone 3. a group which studies a certain issue commit: to do something commitment: 1. one's promise or willingness to do something 2. an obligation, engagement, pledge or understanding commodity: 1. a product or good that can be bought and sold 2. something useful or of value communicate: 1. to transmit something, such as energy or an illness 2. to transmit information to others through written, verbal or non verbal words or signals communication: 1. the act of transmitting information from one person to another 2. the message that is transmitted community: 1. a group of people living in the same area or region 2. a group of people who share common interests 3. the greater public compatible: 1. able to exist in harmony 2. well-suited 3. capable of being mixed compensate: 1. to pay someone for something that has been lost, damaged, or taken away 2. to make up for something negative 3. to pay someone for their services compensation: 1. a reward or a payment that is given in exchange for some sort of negative incident compile: 1. to gather things together 2. to put things together in a logical or orderly form complacency: a feeling of contentment or self-satisfaction with your own abilities or situation that prevents you from trying harder, often while unaware of some potential danger, defect, or the like complement: 1. to go well with something 2. to make perfect; to complete complex: 1. complicated and not easy to understand 2. involving or made from many different parts component: 1. one specific part of something 2. an ingredient or element compound: 1. to increase 2. to combine 3. to make something worse 4. to pay interest comprehensive: 1. all-encompassing 2. thorough 3. extensive 4. dealing with most or all aspects of a certain issue comprise: 1. to be made up of 2. to be composed of 3. to include; to contain compromise: 1. a settlement of differences by mutual concessions 2. reduce the quality, value, or degree of something 3. endanger the interests or reputation of compute: 1. to calculate 2. to determine by using a calculator or computer conceive: 1. to draw up or think up a plan 2. to get pregnant 3. to invent something concentrate: 1. to focus on something 2. to strengthen something 3. to bring things or people together in a common location concept: 1. an idea or a notion 2. a plan 3. an experimental model for a future product concern: A matter of interest or importance concise: 1. expressed in few words 2. clear and succinct 3. brief yet clear conclude: 1. to finish 2. to terminate or cause something to come to an end 3. to deduce or to infer based on what one has seen or heard concomitant: 1. something that is connected to something else, often occurring at the same time 2. something associated with another thing concur: agree with someone or something concurrent: 1. contemporary 2. happening or existing at the same time 3. simultaneous conditional: imposing, containing, subject to, or depending on a condition or conditions conduct: to lead or guide confer: 1. to grant something, like a title, to someone 2. to discuss or exchange opinions conference: 1. a meeting of people who share a similar interest attend a variety of talks or sessions about a specific subject or topic 2. a meeting confidant: 1. a person that one entrusts with their secrets 2. a person one can confide in and discuss personal matters with confine: 1. to limit or restrict 2. to forcibly keep someone or something in a certain place; to imprison confirm: 1. to check 2. to verify 3. to strengthen 4. to reinforce confirmed: 1. firmly settled in a habit 2. established 3. unlikely to change conflict: 1. a fight or a disagreement between two or more parties 2. a struggle 3. an incompatibility conform: 1. to meet (standards) 2. to comply with 3. to be similar to 4. to behave in a way that is expected and acceptable conformity: 1. agreement or compliance with a particular subject or issue 2. behavior that displays compliance with socially accepted rules or norms confound: 1. to surprise or confuse someone 2. to mix something up 3. to refute 4. to bewilder connive: 1. to secretly plan or work together with another person in order to do something illegal 2. to not do anything about illegal behavior you know about, showing one's silent compliance with the issue conscientious: 1. controlled by or done according to, what one knows is right 2. working hard and careful to do things well consensus: 1. majority opinion 2. an opinion or decision reached by all, or nearly all, members of a group 3. a general agreement consent: 1. to allow or agree with 2. to grant permission 3. to approve consequent: 1. resulting 2. following 3. progressing logically consider: to think carefully considerable: 1. quite large; substantial 2. worthy of recognition or consideration 3. noteworthy consist: 1. to be composed of 2. to be inherent 3. to be compatible consistent: 1. regular 2. not changing over time 3. constantly acting or behaving the same way conspicuous: 1. obvious; easily noticed 2. attracting attention, especially because it is strange or unusual constant: 1. unchanging 2. firm or resolute 3. persistent; continuing over a long period of time 4. loyal consternation: a feeling of worry, shock, or confusion, often caused when something unexpected happens constitute: 1. to formally set up or establish 2. to appoint someone to a position 3. to be the same as or equivalent to constitutional: 1. permitted by the constitution of a country, group or business 2. related to the constitution of a country, group or business constrain: 1. to keep back; to confine 2. to restrain; to limit 3. to force; to oblige construct: 1. to create or to form 2. to build; to put pieces together to form a whole object 3. to combine smaller pieces to develop something new construction: 1. the act or business of building things, especially structures consult: 1. to get advice from someone or something; to ask someone their opinion 2. to consider; to take into account consume: 1. to eat 2. to use; to use up 3. to totally destroy consumer: 1. a person who purchases goods or services contact: 1. to communicate with someone over the phone or by writing a letter, e-mail or text message contemporary: 1. from or existing in the same time period 2. modern contempt: 1. a feeling that someone or something is unimportant and deserves no respect 2. disregard for something that is usually respected or feared 3. open disrespect or willful disobedience of the authority of a court of law or legislative body contentious: 1. tending to argue or quarrel; quarrelsome 2. causing, involving, or characterized by argument or controversy context: 1. the circumstances surrounding something 2. the words before and after something that help explain what it means 3. the circumstances or situation in which something happens, which help to explain it contract: 1. to get smaller; to shrink 2. to make smaller 3. to hire someone to work under a contract 4. to get contradict: 1. to make a statement that goes against what has been expressed by another 2. to deny 3. to disagree with something contradiction: 1. a difference between two or more messages or statements which shows that one of the statements must be wrong 2. an inconsistency contrary: 1. opposite or completely different 2. obstinate 3. unfavorable contrast: 1. the act of finding differences between two or more things 2. a difference between two or more things contribute: 1. to write for a newspaper or a magazine 2. to give goods, money or time and effort to a person or group in order to help them contribution: 1. something one gives or does in order to help reach a shared achievement 2. a donation 3. a specific tax payment controversy: 1. a disagreement or dispute over a specific subject about which people have differing opinions 2. a heated discussion or argument convene: 1. to bring people together for a formal or official purpose such as a meeting 2. to gather convention: 1. a formal political agreement 2. a gathering or meeting of people or professionals with a shared interest 3. a social custom conventional: 1. traditional 2. based on what is considered to be traditional or typical 3. common 4. related to or based on a convention or an agreement converse: 1. to talk with a person or a group of people 2. to have a conversation conversely: 1. reciprocally 2. in a contrary manner convert: 1. to change something; to transform 2. to undergo a change 3. to change to another religion convince: 1. to make someone believe what you are saying; to persuade convinced: 1. very sure 2. persuaded 3. certain convivial: 1. (of an atmosphere or event) friendly, lively, and making you feel happy and welcome; festive 2. (of a person) cheerful and friendly; jovial 3. fond of eating, drinking, and good company; sociable; jovial cooperate: 1. to work together with one or more other people in order to reach a shared or mutually beneficial goal cooperative: 1. done with others 2. willing to work with others coordinate: 1. to harmonize 2. to make two or more things work well or efficiently together 3. to match coordination: 1. the act of making various parts work together in one organized or harmonious way copious: large in quantity or number; affording ample supply; abundant; plentiful core: 1. the center of something 2. the most important or essential part of something corporal: of or relating to the body; bodily; physical corporate: 1. belonging or pertaining to a large company or corporation 2. common or shared between people or a group of people corporeal: 1. of or relating to a person's body and not to spiritual or emotional states 2. of a material nature; tangible corpulent: 1. overweight 2. fat 3. physically large correspond: 1. to communicate through messages, letters or e-mails 2. to be related to or quite similar to corresponding: 1. related to 2. comparable 3. matching 4. directly related corroborate: strengthen, confirm or give support to (a statement, theory, etc.) by providing information or evidence that agrees with them cosmopolitan: 1. common to or representative of all or many different countries and cultures 2. containing or having experience of many different countries and cultures 3. including people from many different countries 4. free from local or national habits or prejudice counterfeit: 1. to forge a copy of something, often for illegal or dishonest reasons 2. to create a high-quality copy of something with the intention of defrauding someone couple: 1. two people who are romantically involved 2. two similar or equal things covert: 1. secretive or not openly shown 2. hidden; concealed 3. veiled create: 1. to invent something; to develop something new 2. to cause or bring about credible: 1. trustworthy 2. easy to believe or convincing 3. reliable credit: 1. money that is given to someone with the understanding that it will be paid back with interest 2. recognition or praise credulous: 1. gullible or easily deceived 2. overly willing to believe what one sees or hears 3. easily tricked or convinced criteria: 1. the standards or rules on which something is judged or based crucial: 1. of the utmost importance 2. extremely important 3. decisive cryptic: 1. mysterious 2. possessing a hidden meaning 3. written or said using a special code or cypher culpable: deserving blame or censure culture: 1. behaviors, beliefs, and standards that are shared between one large group of people or a society 2. art, such as music, literature, dance, theater, etc. cumulative: 1. increasing due to the constant addition of other elements 2. gradually increasing 3. snowballing cupidity: 1. avarice 2. a strong or excessive desire for possessions or wealth currency: 1. money; any other medium of exchange cursory: quick and probably not detailed curtail: 1. to reduce or shorten something 2. to establish a limit on something 3. to abridge cycle: 1. an extended period of time 2. a bi- or tri- cycle 3. a series of events which repeat over time cynical: 1. displaying a belief that people only act in self-interested ways 2. pessimistic or skeptical 3. distrustful of humans or human nature 4. contemptuous or condescending data: 1. information, facts or figures about a specific subject that is often used to make a decision 2. information used by a computer dauntless: showing fearlessness and determination dearth: a lack of something or an inadequate supply debacle: 1. a complete collapse or failure, often in an embarrassing way 2. a sudden, disastrous collapse, downfall, or defeat debase: 1. to degrade 2. to adulterate 3. to reduce in quality or value 4. to humiliate debate: 1. a civil or controlled argument between two or more people or groups with opposing viewpoints 2. a formal discussion before a vote 3. discussion decade: 1. a period of ten years 2. any series or group of ten decimate: 1. destroy, kill, or remove a large number or proportion of (a group) 2. reduce, damage, or destroy the strength or effectiveness of something severely 3. select by lot and kill every tenth one of decline: 1. a fall in the number of something; a reduction 2. the act of reducing in number 3. a downward slope decoy: 1. an object used as a decoy or to bait people or animals 2. something used to lure people or animals to trick them into a dangerous situation decry: 1. to openly express displeasure or disagreement with 2. to condemn deduce: 1. to reach a conclusion based on the facts available 2. to infer deference: respectful submission to someone or something deferential: 1. considerate 2. respectful towards one's elders or superiors 3. polite defile: 1. to spoil something by making it less pure; to corrupt 2. to pollute or make something dirty define: 1. to explain exactly what something means 2. to describe what a word means 3. to clarify 4. to limit definite: 1. exact 2. clear 3. undeniable 4. certain and unlikely to change definition: 1. a clear outline of something 2. the meaning of a word or phrase degradation: 1. the act or process of degrading such as in rank, status, or condition 2. treat someone or something poorly and without respect; humiliation deleterious: 1. damaging or harmful 2. injurious to health deliberate: 1. to carefully debate or think about something serious 2. to thoughtfully weigh the available options delineate: 1. describe or portray (something) clearly and precisely 2. draw or trace the outline of; sketch or trace in outline demagogue: a person, especially an orator or political leader, who gains power and popularity by appealing to emotion, passions, prejudice, etc. rather than by using rational argument in order to win them over quickly and so gain power demonstrate: 1. to deliberately show or prove 2. to make clear demonstrative: 1. freely and openly showing one's emotions, attitudes, etc., especially of love or affection 2. serving as convincing evidence or conclusive proof of something demure: (especially of a woman or her behavior) reserved, modest, shy, and well behaved denote: 1. to be a name or symbol for 2. to indicate 3. to mean; to symbolize denounce: 1. to condemn or accuse something or someone, often in a formal manner 2. to strongly and publicly criticize someone or something deny: 1. to say that something is not true 2. to claim one is not guilty of something; to not admit 3. to not let someone have something depict: 1. show (someone or something) in a picture, drawing, painting, photograph, etc. 2. describe (someone or something) using words, a story, etc. deplete: 1. to cause a great reduction in the fullness or size of 2. to use up 3. to decrease the number of something deplore: 1. to believe something is wrong or bad 2. to lament; to regret 3. to feel great sadness about depravity: behavior that is immoral or evil; wickedness deprecate: 1. criticize or express disapproval of (someone or something) 2. depreciate; belittle depreciation: 1. decrease in value due to age, wear, decay, market conditions, etc. 2. a decrease in the purchasing or exchange value of money 3. an instance of disparaging or belittlement depress: 1. to press or force down 2. to make someone feel quite sad 3. to weaken 4. to lower the amount of something depression: 1. extreme sadness 2. a dip in a surface 3. a severe recession in an economy deride: speak of or write about (someone or something) in a way that shows you think they are stupid, unimportant, or useless; make fun of; ridicule derivative: 1. developed from, based on, influenced by, or copied something else; derived 2. copied or adapted from others; not original; secondary derive: 1. to get something from a source 2. to deduce 3. to show or trace the origin of descry: 1. see (something unclear or distant) by looking carefully 2. discover by looking carefully design: 1. a sketch or a plan that shows what something will be like when it is produced or constructed 2. a pattern or plan desist: 1. to cease or to stop 2. to abstain from doing something despite: 1. hatred or malice 2. injury despondent: very sad and with no enthusiasm from loss of hope or courage; dejected despot: 1. a ruler or other person with absolute, unlimited power, typically one who uses that power in cruel and unfair ways; autocrat 2. any tyrant or oppressor destitute: 1. extremely poor and lacking money, food, a home, or possessions 2. (often followed by of) destitute of: deprived of, devoid of, or lacking detect: 1. to note or to feel something 2. to discover or catch 3. to note the presence of deter: 1. to discourage or keep someone from doing something 2. to make someone decide not to do something by making them fear the consequences or repercussions deteriorate: 1. to get or become worse 2. to depreciate 3. to disintegrate over time deterrent: something that discourages; tending to deter detrimental: 1. causing damage or injury 2. harmful deviate: 1. to stray from the established course or standards 2. to digress device: 1. a contraption used to perform specific tasks 2. an explosive, like a bomb 3. a method used to do something devote: 1. to dedicate time or resources to something 2. to set apart dexterous: 1. skillful in the use of one's hands 2. possessing great mental skill; clever diatribe: an angry, bitter, and sharply abusive speech or piece of writing that strongly criticizes, denounces, or attacks against someone or something differentiate: 1. to determine or recognize the difference between two or more things; to distinguish 2. to make one thing unlike another diffuse: 1. pour out and cause to spread freely, as a fluid 2. spread or scatter over a wide area widely or thinly; disseminate; dispersed; not concentrated in one area 3. spread among a large group of people 4. cause (light) to spread evenly to reduce glare dilemma: 1. a serious problem 2. a situation in which a difficult decision must be made diligent: steady, hard-working, and careful in one's work or duties; industrious; painstaking dimension: 1. a property or way of measuring space 2. a part or aspect of something larger diminish: 1. to reduce or make smaller 2. to become smaller or less diminutive: extremely or unusually short or small in size; much smaller than ordinary or average; very small; little; tiny dire: 1. causing or involving great fear or suffering; dreadful; terrible 2. warning of or indicating dreadful or terrible future (trouble, disaster, misfortune, etc.) 3. extremely serious or urgent; requiring immediate action discern: 1. see, recognize, find out, or understand something that is far away or not very clear 2. perceive or recognize (someone or something) with difficulty by the sight or some other sense 3. come to know, recognize, or distinguish mentally discord: 1. disagreement among people or things 2. dispute or strife 3. a lack of harmony discount: a reduction in the usual price of something discrepancy: 1. a difference or variation between things that should be identical 2. inconsistency 3. disagreement discrete: 1. distinct 2. separate 3. not continuous discretion: 1. the ability to judge people or situations wisely and make the right choices 2. the ability to behave in a way that does not cause offense discriminate: 1. to treat someone or a group of people differently due to their origin, race, sex or other trait 2. to distinguish or see the difference between things disdain: the feeling of not liking someone or something and thinking that they are not important and do not deserve any interest, respect, notice, response, etc. disparage: 1. speak of in a slighting or disrespectful way; belittle 2. lower in rank or reputation disparity: 1. a large difference between two or more things 2. inequality 3. incongruity dispel: 1. make (a doubt, fear, belief, feeling, or idea) go away or end, usually by proving them wrong or unnecessary 2. drive away or off in various directions; disperse; dissipate displace: 1. to force someone or something out of its proper place or position 2. to take over for 3. to remove displacement: 1. the act of removing someone or something from the place it held or lived previously display: 1. to show or present 2. to demonstrate 3. to reveal dispose: 1. to get rid of or throw away 2. to make someone feel a certain way 3. to arrange disseminate: 1. spread (something, especially news, information, ideas, etc.) widely 2. scatter widely, as in sowing seed distinct: 1. different or separate 2. unmistakable; obvious distinction: 1. honor or excellence 2. something that makes a person or a thing different from the rest distort: 1. to misrepresent or give false information 2. to change something so that it is no longer the way it originally was distribute: 1. to give out or hand out 2. to spread something out over a surface 3. to deliver products distribution: 1. the act of giving something out to people 2. the way in which something is distributed or spread out over an area diurnal: 1. daily; happening every day 2. done during the daytime or related to daytime divergent: 1. tending to split and move out in different directions from a single point; diverging 2. be or become different diverse: 1. possessing various characteristics 2. distinct 3. diversified diversity: 1. difference or variety 2. the state of having people from different races and cultures gathered together in one space or organization divert: 1. to distract 2. to make something move in a different direction or on a different course 3. to use for a different purpose than the original 4. to amuse or entertain docile: 1. submissive 2. easy to handle, manage or teach 3. compliant doctrine: 1. a belief or set of beliefs that are taught and accepted by a religious, political, scientific, or other group; dogma 2. a statement of official government policy, especially in foreign or military affairs document: 1. to record something on paper or in digital format 2. to provide written evidence dogmatic: an authoritative, arrogant assertion of unproved or unprovable principles as if they are certainly correct and cannot be doubted domain: 1. territory 2. field of activity or study 3. a set or group of websites that share the same suffix such as .net .org etc. domestic: 1. related to house, home or family 2. from one's own country dominant: 1. governing; ruling; exercising one's control 2. more important than similar things 3. commanding dominate: 1. to be very good at something 2. to command; to have power over 3. to be the most important or largest thing in a group dormant: 1. sleeping, lying asleep or as if asleep; inactive 2. not active or developing now, but it may become active or develop in the future 3. in a state of rest or inactivity; inoperative draft: 1. the first draft or copy of something 2. a sketch 3. a rush of air through a building or space drama: 1. a play that is performed in a theater, on television or on the radio 2. a literary work that deals with a serious subject 3. the art of performing dramatic: 1. sensational 2. pronounced 3. extremely sudden 4. extreme dubious: 1. doubtful 2. questionable 3. not totally good or honest 4. undecided duration: 1. the amount of time that something lasts dynamic: 1. full of energy; enthusiastic 2. constantly changing 3. relating to energy or physical forces eccentric: 1. strange 2. unusual 3. unconventional and deviating from what is considered to be "normal" behavior eclectic: 1. selecting or choosing from various sources, systems, or styles 2. made up of or combining elements from a variety of sources economic: 1. cheap 2. pertaining to the economy of a country or region 3. related to the system of buying and selling goods and services economy: 1. the money and production of goods and services of a specific political region 2. thriftiness or careful management when spending money edit: 1. to revise a document and change whatever errors one sees 2. to produce a book or document by gathering different works together edition: 1. a group of a publications that were published at the same time 2. a specific version or a book or a product effigy: 1. a sculpture or monument of a person 2. a poorly made dummy that looks like or represents a person and is most often used in protest or ridicule effluent: something that flows out or forth, especially sewage or other liquid waste egregious: 1. something terribly bad 2. something surprisingly negative elated: 1. very happy and excited; exultantly proud and joyful; overjoyed 2. make very proud, happy, or joyful element: 1. a specific part of something tangible 2. a characteristic of something abstract or intangible 3. the most basic information about a certain subject elicit: 1. evoke or draw out (a response, information, etc.) from someone 2. draw out or entice forth; bring to light eliminate: 1. to get rid of 2. to abolish 3. to remove eloquent: 1. persuasive in speaking or writing 2. characterized by fluent and persuasive speech 3. movingly or vividly expressive elucidate: make clear, plain, or easy to understand, especially by explanation or giving more information; clarify; explain elude: 1. avoid or escape from (a danger, enemy, or pursuer) by quickness, cunning, etc.; evade 2. fail to be understood or remembered by (someone) 3. fail to be achieved by (someone) elusive: 1. difficult to describe, find, catch, achieve, understand, or remember 2. cleverly or skillfully evasive emaciated: 1. extremely thin due to great hunger or illness emancipate: 1. to liberate someone or something 2. to free someone or something from bondage or control 3. to grant freedom and rights to someone embezzle: 1. to secretly take money for your own use from someone who trusts you 2. to defraud emerge: 1. to appear 2. to come into view 3. to become known 4. to come into existence empathy: the ability to understand and share the feelings, thoughts, attitudes, experiences, and emotions of another emphasis: 1. the importance that is specifically placed on something 2. stress empirical: relying on or derived from observation or experiment rather than theory or pure logic emulate: try to equal or excel (someone or something you admire), typically by imitation enable: 1. to make someone able to do something 2. to give someone the tools or resources to do something 3. to allow someone to do something encompass: 1. form a circle or ring around; encircle; surround 2. include different types of people or things; include comprehensively; contain 3. enclose; envelop encounter: 1. to find someone or something unexpectedly 2. to stumble across 3. to face endemic: 1. very common, prevalent in, or peculiar to a particular locality, region, or people 2. native endorse: 1. to publicly declare one's support for something 2. to acknowledge a document by signing it endurance: 1. the ability or power to withstand stress or an unpleasant situation 2. the act of persevering 3. duration energy: 1. the effort or power needed to do something 2. heat, electricity, light or the resources used to produce power enforce: 1. to make someone comply with a law or a rule 2. to cause or force something engage: to occupy the attention enhance: intensify, increase, or improve the quality, amount, extent, or strength of something, as in cost, value, attractiveness, effectiveness, etc. enigma: someone or something that is mysterious, puzzling, and difficult to understand or explain completely enmity: 1. animosity 2. hatred 3. ill-will towards others 4. a deep-seated dislike of another person enormous: 1. extremely large in size or quantity 2. massive ensure: 1. to make sure that something happens or happened 2. to guarantee 3. to secure or make safe entity: 1. an individual, complete, unit that possesses its own unique characteristics 2. a being enumerate: 1. name (a number of things in a series or list) separately, one by one 2. determine the number of; count environment: 1. all of the conditions and circumstances that surround a specific person, animal or thing 2. the surroundings ephemeral: lasting for only a very short time equate: 1. to equalize 2. to make two or more things equal 3. to consider things equal equation: 1. a math problem 2. the act of considering one thing to be the same as another equip: 1. to give someone the tools or skills necessary to perform a job 2. to dress equipment: 1. supplies or tools needed to complete a task equitable: dealing fairly and equally with everyone; just and impartial equivalent: 1. equal to 2. of the same amount, size, value, meaning equivocal: 1. not clear and seeming to have two or more possible opposing meanings 2. ambiguous erode: 1. to eat away or wear away something 2. to slowly deteriorate 3. to reduce something erosion: 1. the gradual corroding or eating away of a subject 2. deterioration erratic: 1. irregular in movement or behavior 2. not following a regular pattern 3. not doing what is expected erudite: having, containing, or showing a lot of knowledge or learning gained from reading eschew: 1. to escape or avoid 2. to stop doing something or give something up 3. to intentionally keep away from something espouse: 1. to marry someone or take them as your spouse 2. to give your support to a belief or an idea 3. to embrace a cause establish: to set up estate: 1. a rather large piece of property 2. all of one's possessions at death estimate: 1. to make a guess or calculate the amount or value of something 2. to judge ethic: 1. a belief or set of beliefs which affects one's behavior 2. a person's moral principles or standards ethnic: 1. of or relating to a specific group of people who share a common race, heritage, set of customs or traditions etymology: 1. the study of the history and origins of words 2. the study of the evolution of words euphemism: 1. a word that is substituted for another, often unpleasant,offensive or upsetting, word evacuate: 1. to empty something out 2. to make people move out of or away from an area that is in danger 3. to remove or discharge evaluate: 1. to judge 2. to closely examine something before determining its value eventual: 1. happening at a time in the future that has not been specified eventually: 1. in the end 2. at an unspecified time in the future 3. finally evidence: 1. material that shows someone is innocent or guilty of something 2. material that proves something evident: clearly and easily seen or understood evoke: 1. bring (a memory, feeling, image, etc.) into the mind 2. bring out; arouse; call forth evolution: 1. gradual development or change, especially over long periods of time evolve: 1. to grow 2. to develop gradually over an extended period of time 3. to go through evolutionary changes exacerbate: increase the severity, violence, or bitterness of (disease, pain, annoyance, etc.) exacting: 1. rigid or severe in demands or requirements; not easily satisfied; rigorous 2. requiring great effort, time, care, patience, or attention excavate: 1. dig a large hole or channel in the ground, especially with a machine 2. uncover or expose by digging; unearth 3. dig out and remove (earth, soil, etc.) 4. form (a hole, tunnel, etc.) by digging exceed: 1. to surpass 2. to go beyond 3. to be greater than exclude: 1. to leave someone or something out 2. to eject 3. to deliberately not include 4. to prevent exemplify: 1. to serve as a typical example of 2. to use an example to illustrate or clarify 2. to embody exhaustive: 1. complete; comprehensive 2. dealing with or studying all aspects 3. all-inclusive exhibit: 1. to display or show 2. to present to the public 3. to reveal exhort: strongly encourage or urge (someone) to do something by strong, often stirring argument, admonition, advice, or appeal; admonish strongly exorbitant: going far beyond what is reasonable, fair, expected, just, proper, or usual, especially of a price or amount charged expand: 1. to add details or information 2. to grow larger 3. to cause growth or to make larger expansion: 1. growth 2. the act or process of getting larger 3. an increase in size or number expedient: helpful or useful in a particular situation and produces an immediate result or solution to a problem, even though possibly improper or immoral expedite: 1. to hasten; to make something happen more quickly 2. to speed up 3. to do something efficiently as well as quickly expert: 1. a person who has a great deal of knowledge about or skill in a specific subject explicit: fully and clearly expressed or demonstrated, leaving no room for confusion or doubt exploit: 1. to take advantage of 2. to make use of exploitation: 1. selfish utilization of someone's work 2. abuse of someone in order to gain advantage export: 1. to sell or send abroad 2. to introduce or transmit an idea from one country into another expose: 1. make (something) visible by uncovering it 2. lay open to danger, attack, harm, etc.; leave unprotected or without covering 3. make known, disclose, or reveal (something hidden, dishonest, etc.) 4. (expose oneself) display one's sexual organs in public exposition: 1. a show where works of art are displayed for the public to contemplate 2. a clear, detailed, easy to understand explanation 3. a show in which many objects that are for sale are displayed exposure: 1. the disclosure or revealing of something 2. the state of having no protection from the elements or other harmful agents expunge: 1. to get rid of or cancel 2. to get rid of something written by erasing it or striking it out external: 1. from or located out the outside; outer 2. coming from the outside or an outside source 3. peripheral extol: praise (someone or something) highly, especially in a very enthusiastic way extract: 1. to remove or pull something out of another source 2. to convince a person to give you something they don't want to give you, often through the use of force fabricate: 1. to create 2. to manufacture 3. to build facilitate: 1. to help make something happen 2. to assist 3. to make something easier faction: 1. a small group within a larger group, usually contentious minority within a larger group 2. conflict within an organization or nation; internal dissension factor: 1. a variable or an element 2. something that influences a result fallacious: 1. based on false information or ideas; erroneous; illogical 2. deceptive; misleading fallacy: 1. a mistaken belief that a lot of people think is true but is in fact false 2. (logic) a mistake or failure in reasoning that makes an argument or idea invalid 3. a misleading or unsound argument 4. deceptive, misleading, or false nature falter: 1. to move or speak in an unsteady, awkward manner 2. to stop doing something, even for just a moment 3. to lose strength fastidious: 1. very attentive to small details and wanting everything to be correct and perfect 2. difficult to please; exacting 3. wanting (clothes, possessions, and property) to always be clean, neat, etc. fathom: 1. a unit of length equal to 6 feet (1.83 meters), a unit for measuring the depth of water 2. understand the reason for (something) thoroughly after much thought fatuous: 1. something or someone that is silly, foolish or pointless feasible: 1. achievable 2. capable of being done or accomplished 3. possible 4. likely feature: 1. a part or aspect of something 2. a quality federal: 1. related to the central or national government 2. related to the system of federalism, a system in which states or provinces and central governments share power fee: 1. to pay a tip to someone 2. to pay someone for their services feral: 1. a wild or undomesticated animal 2. a person who behaves in a wild manner fervent: 1. having or showing great warmth or intensity of spirit, feeling, enthusiasm, etc. 2. hot; boiling; burning; glowing fickle: 1. likely to change one's opinion; not constant 2. unstable; frequently changing file: 1. to cut away using a file 2. to put in order; to arrange 3. to submit or send a document 4. to walk in a line final: 1. last; concluding 2. ultimate 3. coming at the end finance: 1. money that is used to pay for a large and expensive project 2. the money that a person, company or nation has 3. the management of money financial: 1. related to money or finance finite: 1. limited 2. measurable 3. having an end flabbergasted: 1. shocked 2. surprised 3. dumbfounded flagrant: 1. (of a bad action, situation, person, etc.) shockingly noticeable or evident; obviously offensive; glaringly bad; notorious; outrageous 2. notorious; scandalous flamboyant: 1. excessively decorated 2. ornate 3. brightly colored and showy, often to draw attention to someone or something flaunt: 1. to show something, like a personal quality, wanting to get admiration from others 2. to flaunt something fledgling: 1. a young bird just fledged 2. a young, inexperienced, or underdeveloped person or organization flexibility: 1. the ability or willingness to make changes 2. easily bent 3. adaptability flexible: 1. pliable; capable of being manipulated 2. able to change or be modified 3. able to be bent flout: 1. to scorn something 2. to reject 3. to consciously refuse to comply with a rule or law fluctuate: 1. to constantly undergo changes 2. to undulate 3. to shift back and forth; to rise and fall focus: 1. the center point of something 2. the center of attention 3. the main point format: 1. to arrange a document in a specific way 2. to prepare a computer disk to save specific files formula: 1. a fixed or standard way of doing something 2. mathematical symbols that express a rule or a fact forsake: 1. to desert or abandon someone who needs you 2. to give up something special or important forthcoming: 1. upcoming; approaching 2. appearing shortly 3. helpful; collaborative fortitude: mental and emotional strength in facing or enduring pain, difficulty, adversity, misfortune, danger, or temptation with courage fortuitous: 1. happening by accident or chance rather than intention, especially in a way that is lucky or convenient 2. lucky; fortunate foster: 1. promote the growth or development of (something, especially something desirable and over a period of time) 2. bring up with care, raise, or rear a child, usually for a limited time, without being the child's legal parent foundation: 1. the base on which something is built 2. an organization that deals with social issues or projects 3. the underlying principle or basis fractious: 1. irritable and quarrelsome 2. difficult to control; unruly framework: 1. the basic structure for something 2. something's skeleton 3. a set of rules around which something is done fraudulent: 1. dishonest and illegal; based on fraud or deception; using fraud; tricky; deceitful; dishonest 2. done or obtained by deception, especially criminal deception fraught: filled, charged, or loaded (with), especially unpleasant or undesirable things such as problems, difficulties, or things that are confusing frivolous: 1. not serious 2. unimportant 3. carefree in nature and superficial 4. trivial frugal: 1. sparing or economical in use or expenditure; not wasteful; not spending freely or unnecessarily 2. simple, cheap, and not very big function: 1. a duty or an activity that one must perform 2. a formal event 3. a purpose fund: 1. money saved or collected that is destined for a specific purpose 2. a large supply of something 3. capital fundamental: 1. essential 2. of great importance 3. basic furrow: 1. a deep wrinkle in one's skin 2. a line in the ground that was dug by a plow 3. a long line or channel in any surface furthermore: 1. in addition 2. moreover 3. besides 4. additionally furtive: done quietly, quickly and secretly to avoid being noticed futile: 1. incapable of producing any result; unsuccessful, or useless; ineffective 2. of no importance; worthless garrulous: talking much or too much, especially about things that are not important gaunt: 1. extremely thin due to illness or hunger 2. empty or barren 3. dreary gender: 1. one's sex or sexual identity 2. all members of a specific sex generate: 1. to create or bring about 2. to produce 3. to produce energy, like electricity generation: 1. a group of people in a society or in a family that were born in the same general age 2. a period of around thirty years in which people are born, grow up, and have babies of their own genial: 1. cheerful, friendly, and sympathetic; amiable 2. (of air or climate) pleasantly mild and warm; favorable for life, growth, or comfort glacial: 1. icy or unfriendly 2. related to a glacier 3. slow moving 4. extraordinarily cold global: 1. world-wide 2. found around the world 3. comprehensive globe: 1. a spherical shape; a ball 2. a map of the world which is printed on a sphere 3. the earth gluttony: 1. the act of eating and drinking more than one needs 2. excess in eating or drinking goad: 1. to provoke someone 2. to urge someone on 3. to tease or incite a person or an animal goal: 1. an aim, target or objective 2. the area where players must put a ball or puck in order to receive points in various sporting events gossamer: 1. a fine, filmy cobweb often seen floating in the air or caught on bushes or grass 2. (something) delicate, light, delicate or flimsy grade: 1. a level or rank 2. a number or letter that indicates the quality of something grandiose: 1. (in a good sense) large and impressive, in size, effect, grandeur, or extent 2. (in a bad sense) seeming or trying to seem very important, but really looking artificial or silly; pompous and showy 3. more complicated or elaborate than necessary grant: 1. to give something to someone 2. to allow someone to have something 3. to bestow grate: 1. to shred something, such as cheese 2. to persistently annoy 3. to produce an annoying sound through friction gratis: 1. free 2. without charge or price gratuitous: 1. unearned; not called for 2. not necessary 3. with no cause 4. free gravity: 1. the force that pulls matter toward a center of attraction; the force that pulls matter to the ground 2. seriousness or solemnity gregarious: 1. an extremely sociable person 2. an animal that tends to live in flocks or herds guarantee: 1. the promise that something will happen or that something is true 2. an assurance guideline: 1. a rule or benchmark 2. information tells people how something should be done guile: clever and usually dishonest methods to achieve something or to make others do what you want hamper: slow or prevent the free movement, progress, or action of (someone or something); hold back; hinder; impede harangue: 1. a long, angry and vociferous speech, often made with the intention of persuading someone 2. an aggressive and highly opinionated piece of writing hardy: 1. capable of enduring extreme conditions or difficult situations; robust 2. bold or daring; courageous 3. brazenly daring; audacious 4. (of plants) able to survive outside during winter without protection from the weather hasten: 1. make something happen sooner or more quickly; speed up; accelerate 2. move or act quickly; hurry 3. cause to hurry haughty: having or showing irrational pride in oneself and irrational disdain for others headlong: 1. with the head leading 2. very quickly and without taking time to think about your actions headstrong: 1. stubborn and unwilling to change 2. strong-willed 3. very determined to do what one wishes, despite warnings from others heed: 1. to listen to or pay attention, especially when referring to advice or warnings 2. to consider or take notice of hence: 1. therefore 2. for this reason 3. from this time 4. from this place hierarchy: 1. the order of people based on their rank or status 2. a system where people or things are ranked based on their status highlight: 1. to stress something 2. to make something appear more important 3. to emphasize hinder: 1. to limit someone's possibilities or the ability to do something 2. to hamper or impede 3. to slow something down homogeneous: of the same or similar nature or kind hubris: excessive pride or self-confidence that offends people; arrogance resulting from excessive pride or from passion hypocrisy: 1. the act or process of pretending to believe in something you don't believe in 2. being two-faced, false or insincere hypocritical: 1. two-faced 2. insincere; never meaning what one says 2. behaving in a way which contradicts your professed beliefs hypothesis: an unproved theory, proposition, supposition, etc. that is made on the basis of limited evidence and not proven but that leads to further study, discussion, or investigation, etc. identical: 1. exactly alike 2. the same as something else 3. extraordinarily similar identify: 1. to discover 2. to equate 3. to recognize a person or a problem ideology: 1. a set of ideas which influence or govern a person or a society idiosyncrasy: 1. a strange or unusual habit, way of behaving, or feature that is characteristic of a person, especially that is different from most people 2. an unusual feature or characteristic of something 3. an unusual individual reaction to food or a drug ignorant: 1. not aware 2. possessing little knowledge or training 3. uneducated; uninformed illuminate: 1. to make something brighter; to brighten 2. to explain something in a way that makes it understandable; to instruct illusory: 1. not real despite appearing as if it's real 2. deceptive illustrate: 1. to show something or explain, especially by giving examples 2. to draw pictures that are to be used in a book or other written document 3. to represent image: 1. a picture or a visual representation of something 2. a mental picture of something immigrate: 1. to enter a foreign country with the purpose of permanently living there immigration: 1. the act of moving into a new country in order to live there impact: 1. a collision; the moment when two or more bodies hit 2. the effect that an event has on a person; an influence impartial: 1. fair and unbiased 2. refraining from supporting a specific side in an argument 3. not partial impeccable: 1. without fault 2. perfect 3. flawless 4. not capable of sin impecunious: having little or no money impertinent: 1. rude and not demonstrating the amount of respect that is customary for the situation at hand implacable: 1. someone with strong ideas which are impossible to change 2. unable to appease implement: 1. to put something in force or into effect 2. to carry out implicate: 1. to demonstrate, imply or show that a person is involved in something, such as a crime implication: something implied or suggested without saying it directly implicit: 1. not explicitly said or explained; implied 2. suggested imply: 1. express or indicate (something) indirectly 2. indicate or suggest without saying or showing impose: 1. to force people to comply with a rule or to accept something 2. to demand impoverished: 1. very poor; poverty stricken 2. something that has become worse than it previously was impromptu: 1. done without any planning 2. unrehearsed 3. offhand impudent: 1. insolent 2. rude towards others 3. disrespectful toward someone that should receive respect inadvertent: 1. accidental or not on purpose 2. not intentional 3. heedless inane: 1. lacking sense, meaning, substance, or importance; silly 2. empty; void; vacant incentive: 1. something that motivates people to do something or take action 2. a reward or the threat of punishment that inspires people to act inchoate: not completely formed or developed yet; disorganized; incomplete incidence: 1. the rate or frequency at which something happens 2. occurrence incipient: 1. just starting 2. in the beginning stages 3. beginning to appear incisive: 1. sharp 2. penetrating 3. clearly expressed 4. direct inclination: 1. a tendency to support something or like something; a preference 2. a slope or angle incline: 1. to be in favor of something or have a preference 2. to bend or slant 3. to slope incoherent: 1. unclear; difficult to understand 2. rambling or disjointed 3. lacking unity income: 1. money that one receives in exchange for one's work or smart investing 2. revenue 3. a company's profits incompatible: 1. unable to exist together in harmony or agreement because of basic differences 2. not consistent or able to coexist with (another) incongruous: 1. inappropriate or not considered to be normal 2. incompatible or inconsistent with the rest of things in its group or time incontrovertible: 1. very clear and obviously true; undeniable incorporate: 1. to include something into a larger unit or group 2. to combine incredulous: 1. unwilling or unable to believe something, and usually showing this; doubting; skeptical 2. showing doubt or disbelief 3. incredible; not easy to be believed indefatigable: 1. untiring and inexhaustible 2. not yielding to fatigue despite persisting in labor or effort for a long time indelible: 1. impossible to remove or forget 2. producing marks that cannot be erased or removed 3. permanent index: 1. an alphabetical list showing all that is included in a book or a larger document 2. an alphabetical list of the documents in a collection 3. an indication indicate: 1. to show 2. to be a sign of 3. to signal 4. to suggest indifferent: 1. not caring about something; apathetic or indifferent 2. impartial 3. unremarkable or average indigenous: existing, growing, or produced naturally in a particular place or climate; native indignant: feeling or showing anger or annoyance at unfair, mean, or ungrateful action or treatment individual: 1. a single human being 2. a person indolent: 1. disliking or avoiding work; idle; lazy 2. causing little or no pain 3. slow to heal, grow, or develop; inactive induce: 1. persuade or influence someone to do something 2. bring about, produce, or cause 3. draw (a general rule or conclusion) by inductive reasoning indulgent: 1. allowing someone to do or have what they want, especially when it may not be proper, healthy, appropriate, etc. 2. indulging or inclined to indulge, especially when you should be strict inept: 1. not effective 2. unfit or wrong in an inappropriate way 3. awkward or clumsy inert: 1. unable to move or act 2. moving or acting very slowly 3. not energetic or interesting inertia: 1. lack of activity 2. the fact that matter moves in the same direction unless acted upon by another force inevitable: 1. impossible to avoid, evade, escape, or prevent 2. sure to happen inevitably: 1. in a way that isn't preventable 2. not able to be avoided inexorable: 1. incapable of being altered, swayed or stopped 2. not capable of being persuaded infamy: extremely bad reputation for having done bad things or for being evil infer: form an opinion or guess that something is true by reasoning, especially based on known facts, evidence, or premises infrastructure: 1. the underlying features of something; framework 2. a country's basic systems, such as power, water or transportation ingenious: clever, resourceful, original, and inventive inherent: existing in someone or something as a natural and inseparable element, quality, right, or attribute inhibit: 1. prevent someone from doing what he or she wants to do 2. prevent or slow down the activity, growth or occurrence of (something) 3. restrain, hinder, arrest, or check (an action, impulse, etc.) initial: 1. first 2. occurring at the beginning of something 3. incipient initiate: 1. to begin 2. to introduce a person to into a subject or knowledge; to teach someone 3. to formally admit someone into a group injure: 1. to physically hurt or harm someone or something 2. to offend someone or hurt them mentally or emotionally injury: 1. physical harm caused by violence or an accident innate: 1. a quality or ability existing in one from birth 2. an essential characteristic existing as part of the basic nature innocuous: 1. that does not injure or harm 2. not likely to bother or offend anyone 3. not likely to arouse strong feelings or hostility innovate: 1. to begin to use or to invent new ideas, concepts, products, equipment, etc. 2. to make changes innovation: 1. the use of something new; a change to a particular process insatiable: 1. not able to be satisfied 2. never satisfied 3. very greedy insert: 1. to put or place something in something else 2. to add something insidious: 1. seemingly harmless yet, in truth, damaging and harmful 2. slowly acting and causing harm insight: 1. understanding of a specific theme or topic 2. the ability to clearly understand a difficult or complicated situation or topic insipid: 1. without flavor; tasteless 2. not interesting or exciting; dull; boring inspect: 1. to carefully examine something, especially in search of problems or flaws 2. to make an official visit to ensure that rules are being followed or complied with inspection: 1. the act of examining something by an official or a person who has been specially trained 2. an official or formal review instance: 1. an occurrence 2. an example used to demonstrate something institute: 1. an organization that promotes education or art 2. an organization that carries out research 3. an organization with a specific purpose instruct: 1. to teach someone 2. to show someone how to do something 3. to direct or give orders insular: 1. ignorant of or no interested in cultures, ideas, or peoples outside your own group or country 2. not interested in learning new ideas or ways of doing things 3. of, relating to, or from an island integral: 1. fundamental; essential 2. of the utmost importance 3. necessary integrate: 1. to add something to a unit to make it whole 2. to combine two or more things 3. to join; to unify integrity: 1. the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles 2. the quality or state of being whole and undivided 3. the quality or state of being unimpaired; soundness intelligence: 1. the ability to learn or to acquire knowledge or skills 2. classified or secret information about an organization or a country intend: plan intense: 1. acute 2. very strong; extreme 3. profound interact: 1. to communicate with and react to another human 2. to act on interaction: 1. the act of communicating and acting with other individuals intermediate: 1. in the middle of two things, places, etc. 2. between two levels; between basic and advanced intermittent: 1. happening at irregular intervals 2. not steady 3. stopping and starting internal: 1. found or existing within certain limits 2. inner 3. interior interpret: 1. to understand something in a certain way 2. to explain something or make it possible to understand 3. to convert someone's spoken words into another language interpretation: 1. explanation 2. definition 3. the act of orally translating from one language to another interval: 1. the space or spaces between things 2. the period of time between two things 3. a pause intervene: 1. to get involved or become involved in a situation in order to change its suspected outcome 2. to interrupt 3. to be situated between two things intervention: 1. the act of becoming involved in something intransigent: unwilling or refusing to change your opinions or behavior with no good reason intrepid: very bold or brave and showing no fear of dangerous situations; fearless intrinsic: 1. inherent 2. relating to the basic nature of something 3. fundamental intuitive: 1. of, relating to, or arising from intuition; instinctive 2. known or perceived through intuition inundate: overwhelm (someone or something) by sending or providing with a large amount of things at the same time invest: 1. to put one's money into something with the intention of eventually earning money from the project 2. to give power or rank to 3. to install a new leader 4. to endow investigate: 1. to thoroughly examine something 2. to explore a topic in order to learn the truth about it 3. to try to get information about something investigation: 1. research or inquiry 2. the act of trying to find information about something in order to better understand it inveterate: 1. established or habitual 2. deep-rooted 3. settled in a habit and unlikely to change invoke: 1. request blessing, help, inspiration, support, etc. from someone, especially God, a god, a saint, etc. 2. ask for; request earnestly 3. make someone have a particular feeling or remember something involve: 1. to engage 2. to include something as necessary 3. to cause a person to participate or get involved irate: feeling or showing extreme anger; very angry; enraged ironic: 1. using words that literally mean the opposite of what the speaker or writer wants to say, especially when one wants to express humor irony: a method of humorous or subtly sarcastic expression in which the intended meaning of the words is different from and often opposite to their literal meaning irrevocable: 1. unable to be taken away 2. unable to be changed 3. final isolate: 1. to seclude someone or something 2. to place something in quarantine 3. to separate something or someone isolated: 1. separated from others 2. occurring just one time issue: topic item: 1. a single object 2. a piece of news 3. a subject to be discussed or dealt with jeopardize: 1. to put something or someone in danger or at risk 2. to threaten journal: 1. a newspaper or magazine 2. a magazine that contains articles about a specific subject 3. a written record of the day 4. a logbook jubilant: 1. thrilled 2. feeling and expressing great joy 3. expressing extreme happiness, often due to a victory or success judicious: having, applying, or showing reason and good judgment or sense in making decisions justification: 1. the reason behind something; something that explains or justifies something else justify: 1. to explain or defend one's position or reasoning 2. to adjust one's text so that the right and left edges of a document are equal 3. to prove something to be correct kindle: 1. to build or light a fire 2. to make something burn; to ignite 3. to arouse an emotion or cause a feeling 4. to stir up knell: 1. the sad and somber sound of a bell, especially while it tolls for a person who has died label: 1. a piece of material on an object that gives information about the object 2. a name or phrase assigned to a person to classify them, often in an unfair manner 3. a company that produces music labour: 1. work or physical exertion 2. the process of giving birth to a baby 3. workers, when considered collectively lackluster: 1. dull in color or brightness 2. boring 3. unimaginative laconic: using very few words in speech, writing, or expression; terse; concise languid: 1. lacking enthusiasm, energy, or strength; without interest or spirit 2. (of a period of time) relaxed and pleasant 3. weak or faint from illness or fatigue 4. slow in progress; tardy latent: exists but is not active, obvious, completely developed, or cannot be seen laudable: deserving or worthy of praise lavish: 1. extravagant or expensive 2. liberal in one's spending or giving of money 3. impressive 4. generous 5. sumptuous lax: 1. not as strict or strong 2. loose 3. not careful layer: 1. different tiers that make something up 2. a thin sheet of a certain substance 3. a substance that is above or under another substance lecture: 1. a speech or lesson about a specific subject 2. a speech that is open to to the public 3. a long and serious scolding legal: 1. allowed or permitted by law 2. related or connected to law legend: 1. the part of a map or a chart where each symbol or color are explained 2. a story that has been told over generations that may or may not be true; myth legislate: 1. to create and pass laws legislation: 1. laws 2. the act of lawmaking lethargic: 1. sluggish or drowsy; tired or slightly tired 2. apathetic leviathan: 1. something or someone that is very large and powerful, especially a ship 2. a very large animal, especially a whale levity: 1. lack of seriousness, especially when strictness is required or appropriate 2. frivolity 3. fickleness levy: 1. to impose a tax, fee or fine on 2. to officially request the payment of a tax, fee or fine liberal: 1. tolerant or open-minded 2. in favor of personal rights and freedoms 3. in favor of reform and progressive policies 4. generous likewise: 1. similarly 2. moreover 3. in addition limpid: 1. transparent; clear 2. easily intelligible 3. serene and without worry link: 1. to connect two or more things 2. to relate things 3. to join lithe: young, healthy, attractive, and able to move and bend in an easy and graceful way locate: 1. to find 2. to situate 3. to be in a certain place 4. to discover the exact position location: 1. the place where someone or something can be found 2. place lofty: 1. elevated; high 2. arrogant; thinking that one is better or more important than others 3. tall logic: 1. a specific or formal way of thinking 2. the scientific study of the processes used when humans reason or think longevity: 1. long life 2. the length or duration of life 3. long existence or service loquacious: tending to talk a lot or too much lucid: 1. very clear and easy to understand 2. clear; transparent 3. able to think clearly lucrative: producing a lot of wealth or profit; profitable ludicrous: 1. absurd 2. laughable; deserving of or causing laughter 3. ridiculous lull: 1. cause to sleep, rest, or calm, typically with soothing sounds or movements 2. cause someone feel secure, relaxed, or confident instead of careful and alert, especially by deception 3. a temporary calm, quiet, or stillness, as in a storm 4. become calm lurid: 1. causing shock or horror, especially because involving violence, sex, or immoral activity; gruesome 2. glowing with an unnatural glare and in an ugly way magnanimous: 1. kind, generous, or forgiving in overlooking injury or insult, especially towards a rival or less powerful person; free from petty resentfulness or vindictiveness 2. high-minded; generous and noble magnate: 1. a very successful or very important person in a specific industry maintain: 1. to keep something at the same level, rate or condition 2. to continue 3. to firmly declare or assert maintenance: 1. financial support given from one ex-spouse to another 2. upkeep 3. the act of maintaining major: 1. quite important 2. serious 3. large 4. more important malady: 1. an illness, disease or ailment 2. a major problem malevolent: causing or wanting to cause harm or evil to another or others; malicious; evil malleable: 1. (of a metal or other material) able to be hammered, pounded, or pressed into various shapes without breaking or cracking 2. easily influenced, trained, or controlled; adaptable manifold: 1. multiple or many in number 2. varied or consisting of multiple parts or elements 3. plentiful, numerous manipulate: 1. to change or modify, especially to suit one's purposes 2. to handle 3. to influence or control someone manual: 1. a guide book that tells one how to operate or use something 2. an instruction book margin: 1. a border or edge 2. the difference between the cost of production of a good and the amount at which it is sold marginal: 1. not important 2. quite small 3. on the margin or border marred: damaged or disfigured by injury or rough wear; spoiled; impaired marshal: 1. to organize or arrange things or people 2. to ceremoniously lead people mature: 1. to grow old 2. to develop 3. to ripen maverick: a person who refuses to follow the customs or rules of or resists adherence to a group maxim: 1. a general truth that someone lives by 2. a rule of conduct 3. a proverb maximise: 1. to make as large as possible 2. to make the most of something 3. to use something in a way that allows one to get the best possible result maximum: 1. the highest possible amount or largest quantity mechanism: 1. a machine or device 2. the working parts of a machine media: 1. companies or institutions that report the news through the television, radio, press, internet, etc. 2. mass communication when considered as a whole mediate: 1. to settle disputes through negotiation 2. to be an intermediary 3. to work with opposing sides to reach an agreement medium: 1. a way of expressing something, such as photography or print 2. something in a middle position 3. surrounding objects; environment melancholy: a feeling of sadness, depression, and of being without hope, typically with no obvious cause mental: 1. related to or involving the mind 2. existing in the mind mercenary: 1. working or acting only for money or other reward 2. a professional soldier hired to serve in a foreign army, guerrilla organization, etc. merge: 1. to put two or more things together; to unite; to combine method: 1. a way of doing something 2. an approach 3. a technique meticulous: 1. extremely concerned with details 2. thorough and precise 3. finicky mettle: 1. resilience; stamina 2. fortitude and courage 3. the ability to deal with situations that are considered difficult 4. temperament migrate: 1. to move from one region or country to another migration: 1. the movement of people or animals from one reason to another, based on a variety of different reasons military: 1. related to soldiers, the army, or armed conflict 2. done or made by soldiers minimal: 1. the least or fewest possible 2. extremely small 3. negligible minimise: 1. to make something smaller 2. to reduce as much as possible in amount or degree 3. to make something seem less important minimum: 1. the smallest or least amount of something possible 2. the smallest size possible ministry: 1. a government department that is in charge of a specific task or subject 2. the job of being a preacher or a priest minor: 1. of little importance 2. small or secondary 3. not valuable 4. not serious minute: extremely small mire: 1. to entangle or trap 2. to cause to stick or get stuck 3. to soil or stain with mud mitigate: make something less severe, serious, painful, harmful, unpleasant, or bad mode: 1. a fashion 2. a way of doing something or performing a task modicum: 1. a limited amount of something 2. a small object 3. a reduced quantity modify: 1. to make changes to something 2. to adjust or alter momentous: 1. extremely important, especially in reference to the future or future events 2. weighty monitor: 1. to watch someone or something 2. to check on something or someone in order to detect changes 3. to supervise monotonous: 1. repetitive and boring 2. lacking variety 3. dull 4. wearisome morose: 1. austere and churlish 2. ill-tempered 3. bleak or dreary in nature 4. showing a gloomy attitude motivation: 1. the enthusiasm, interest or reason for doing something motive: 1. one of the reasons behind someone's behavior 2. something that inspires someone to behave in a certain way 3. a motif mundane: 1. ordinary and not interesting or exciting 2. relating to the world and practical matters instead of heavenly or spiritual ones; worldly; earthly mutual: 1. shared between two or more parties 2. held in common myriad: 1. a large number, often one that is too large to count 2. a great deal of people or things nadir: 1. the point opposite the zenith on a sphere, directly below the observer 2. the lowest, worst point in a situation nascent: 1. emerging or beginning to exist 2. recently formed or started 3. developing navigable: 1. safe, wide, and deep enough to allow the passage or transit of ships 2. able to be directed or steered nefarious: extremely wicked; criminal; evil; immoral; sinful negate: 1. to deny something or say something isn't true 2. to cancel something out; to nullify negative: 1. pessimistic 2. harmful or bad 3. expressing or showing "no" 4. expressing disapproval negligence: 1. failure to take the proper amount of care in a specific situation, often causing damage or harm 2. the state or quality of being negligent 3. carelessness neophyte: 1. a newcomer to a specific belief; a proselyte 2. a person who has only recently started to participate in a subject or an activity nettle: 1. to bother or annoy 2. to provoke 3. to irritate or sting as if with nettles network: 1. a large system of smaller interconnected parts 2. a system of interconnected people or things 3. a group of people who are related in some way neutral: 1. impartial 2. not supporting either side involved in a conflict nevertheless: 1. in spite of 2. notwithstanding 3. however nomadic: 1. constantly moving from place to place without a fixed pattern 2. itinerant 3. pertaining to a wandering tribe nominal: 1. insignificant 2. in name, but not in practice 3. very small nonchalant: coolly unconcerned, indifferent, or unexcited; relaxed, calm, and not worried about anything; not displaying anxiety, interest, or enthusiasm nonetheless: 1. nevertheless 2. however norm: 1. a rule or standard 2. a pattern or something that is expected 3. a model nostalgia: 1. homesickness; a longing for one's home or hometown 2. a feeling of sadness and pleasure when thinking about events or things from the past; sentimentality notion: 1. an idea, belief or opinion about something notwithstanding: 1. in spite of 2. nevertheless 3. although novel: 1. new 2. different from anything that has previously existed 3. surprisingly new or unusual novice: a person who is new and not experienced in a job or situation noxious: 1. detrimental to living beings 2. something that is dangerous for one's physical health nuance: a small variation in meaning, tone or feeling nuclear: 1. related to or employing nuclear weapons or energy 2. related to the nucleus of an atom nullify: 1. to void something, especially a legal agreement or decision 2. to make something useless or null objective: 1. fair and impartial 2. unbiased 3. based on facts and not affected by feelings 4. actual oblique: 1. possessing a slanting or sloping angle or direction; inclined 2. not expressing something in a clear or direct manner obliterate: 1. to totally destroy 2. to make something disappear completely 3. to get rid of, erase or cover completely oblivious: 1. unaware or not conscious about something happening at that moment 2. forgetful 3. inattentive obscure: 1. not famous or well-known 2. difficult to see 3. faint; vague 4. unnoticeable 5. mysterious obsequious: 1. overly attentive or eager to flatter others 2. excessive obedience or flattery, often in order to gain favors from people of influence obsession: 1. a person, object or idea that someone constantly thinks about 2. the state of being completely obsessed with something obsolete: 1. outdated or old-fashioned 2. no longer in use 3. antiquated obstinate: 1. unreasonably stubborn and unwilling to change one's opinion or attitude 2. troublesome to deal with, change or remove obtain: 1. to get 2. to acquire 3. to procure obtuse: annoyingly insensitive or slow to understand explanations or situations quickly obviate: anticipate and prevent or remove (a need, problem, difficulty, disadvantage, etc.) by effective measures so that action to deal with it becomes unnecessary obvious: 1. clear 2. easy to see 3. apparent 4. evident occupy: 1. to be inside something 2. to dwell in 3. to fill 4. to keep someone busy occur: 1. to take place 2. to happen 3. to exist odd: 1. unable to be divided by two 2. strange or uncommon 3. unexpected offset: 1. to balance or counteract something 2. to compensate ominous: 1. threatening or suggestive that something bad is going to occur 2. inauspicious ongoing: 1. continuing 2. happening at the present time 3. in progress opaque: 1. not letting light pass through; not transparent or translucent 2. difficult to understand or explain option: 1. the ability or right to choose 2. a choice or something that can be chosen opulent: 1. expensive and luxurious 2. very wealthy, rich, or affluent 3. richly supplied; abundant or plentiful orient: 1. to adapt something 2. to align something based on a specific point or direction 3. to direct towards a goal orientation: 1. the act of finding or determining one's position 2. a person or group's interests or beliefs 3. training for a job ornate: 1. elaborate or heavily adorned 2. marked by complex language and unusual vocabulary orthodox: 1. conventional or acceptable by the general public 2. traditional or old-fashioned in one's beliefs 3. a strict observer of a certain faith ostensible: 1. something apparent or professed to be true 2. something conspicuous and open to view ostentatious: 1. pretentious or showy display, as of wealth, knowledge, etc., in an attempt to attract attention, admiration, or envy 2. designed to impress oust: 1. to eject someone from a place or a role 2. to force someone out of a position outcome: 1. the result or consequence 2. the effect output: 1. production over a specific period of time 2. yield 3. energy or power produced by a system or machine overall: 1. comprehensive 2. all-inclusive 3. total 4. in general overlap: 1. a shared area of responsibility or interest 2. the amount in which two things cover a shared area 3. the period of time when two different things are occurring overseas: 1. abroad 2. in a foreign country oversight: 1. an accidental omission or mistake that often brings about problems 2.careful vigilance 3. surveillance overt: 1. transparent; done or displayed in public 2. not hidden 3. clear and apparent overwrought: 1. tired; fatigued 2. upset 3. nervous or worried 4. overly emotional 5. too ornate or complex pacifist: 1. a person who is totally opposed to the use of violence or force 2. a person opposed to the military who refuses to participate in military activities pacify: 1. to ease a tense situation or someone's anger 2. to cause calm or peace to come to a previously tense situation 3. to put an end to violence or conflict painstaking: 1. performing or characterized by diligent and careful work, in which much attention is paid to detail 2. trying very hard to do something palatable: 1. tasty 2. fit to be consumed by humans 3. acceptable panacea: 1. a cure for any malady 2. something that people think will cure any difficulty or problem panel: 1. a board 2. a group of people who work together in order to make decisions, pass judgment or entertain people paradigm: 1. something that serves as an example or a model 2. accepted ideas or practices that are used in order to explain or view a shared reality paradox: 1. something that sounds untrue or impossible but might be possible or true 2. something that contradicts itself or has opposite qualities paragon: 1. someone or something that is perfect and is considered a model to be copied or imitated 2. the model of perfection or excellence paragraph: 1. a portion of a text that centers around one specific idea parallel: 1. not intersecting 2. occurring at the same time 3. extending in the same direction parameter: 1. a boundary that limits a specific action or process 2. a rule that controls something paramount: 1. supreme 2. more important than any other thing parasite: 1. any animal or plant that lives on and feeds on another animal or plant parody: 1. a work of art such as a text or a play which is created to poke fun at or ridicule another work 2. to poke fun at someone or something participate: 1. to be involved in something 2. to take part partisan: 1. strongly prejudiced in favor of something 2. one-sided or partial 3. someone who is devoted to a political party partner: 1. someone you are closely involved with 2. a person you are involved in a relationship with 3. one of the owners of a company passive: 1. inactive 2. complacent 3. submissive 4. inert pathos: 1. sadness or pity 2. the quality of something, such as a work of art, which arouses emotions such as pity or sadness patron: 1. a person who supports a group, activity or organization by donating money to them; a benefactor 2. a regular or frequent customer pedestrian: 1. ordinary; dull 2. commonplace 3. undistinguished penchant: 1. a clear inclination towards something 2. a taste for something perceive: 1. to become aware of 2. to observe; to notice percent: 1. out of one hundred 2. a part of one hundred perfunctory: 1. an action performed in a routine and careless manner 2. acting in a way which shows a lack of interest period: 1. an interval or length of time 2. a full stop peripheral: 1. something that is found on the outer edge or boundary 2. trivial or unimportant 3. something that is secondary or supplementary pernicious: 1. deadly 2. causing extreme harm, destruction or injury persist: 1. to persevere 2. to continue despite difficulty 3. to stand firm persistent: 1. unending; unstopping 2. constant 3. stubborn; not willing to give up perspective: 1. a vista or view 2. a way of looking at or examining something 3. an outlook pertinent: 1. relevant to the topic at hand 2. logically related to the matter 3. fitting perusal: 1. the act of carefully looking at or examining something 2. the attentive reading or study of something peruse: 1. to read something thoroughly 2. to examine something in detail 3. to skim something; to read something in a relaxed manner pervasive: 1. spread all over or spreading to all parts 2. present everywhere 3. permeating; penetrating phase: 1. a stage (of time) 2. a period of time in a person's life phenomenon: 1. an extraordinary person or thing 2. an observable fact or occurrence 3. something remarkable philosophy: 1. the study of human morals and behavior 2. ideas and theories about something 3. the way someone thinks about life 4. a theory or belief that guides someone's behavior phlegmatic: not easily upset, excited, or angered to action or display of emotion; apathetic; sluggish physical: 1. related to the body 2. related to something one can see and touch; tangible piety: 1. devoutness, love or reverence to God 2. devoutness shown through actions or one's daily life pinnacle: 1. the peak 2. the highest point 3. a tall and pointed formation 4. the most important or successful part of a person's life pious: 1. extremely religious 2. devout in one's religious beliefs 3. falsely devout or moral 4. dutiful to one's parents or other authority figures pivotal: 1. of extreme importance 2. critical; crucial 3. significant placate: make (someone) less angry or hostile, especially by making concessions or by being nice to them placebo: 1. a harmless substance that has no real affect on the person who takes it 2. something designed or done to placate the person who takes or receives it placid: 1. peaceful and undisturbed 2. serene, with a lack of movement or activity 3. showing calm plastic: (of substances or materials) capable of being molded or shaped platitude: 1. a trite, dull or unoriginal saying that is considered common information, despite the remark being said as if it were original information 2. absence of originality plausible: something that is credible and possibly true plethora: a large or excessive amount of (something), especially a larger amount than you need, want, or can deal with; overabundance; excess pliable: 1. malleable 2. flexible 3. easy to manipulate into other shapes plummet: 1. to fall suddenly or drastically 2. to plunge plus: 1. positive 2. higher than 3. extra or added policy: 1. a course of action decided upon by an organization, a group of people, a government or a political party 2. guidelines ponderous: 1. slow and clumsy because of great weight or size 2. very boring or dull 3. that seems heavy; bulky; massive portion: 1. a small part or section of something whole; a piece 2. the specific amount of food given to someone pose: 1. to take on a posture for artistic purposes 2. to formally ask a question 3. to cause a problem 4. to impersonate someone positive: 1. extremely certain, without any doubt 2. more than zero 3. hopeful or giving reasons to be so posterity: 1. future generations 2. one's descendants posthumous: 1. taking place after death 2. published after death postulate: 1. a prerequisite 2. something which is accepted as true before developing or discussing another idea 3. a basic principle potent: 1. extremely powerful or effective 2. influential 3. possessing great authority or power potential: 1. possible 2. able to occur 3. capable of developing or happening practice: the expected procedure or way of doing something practitioner: 1. a person engaged in a specific practice, such as medicine or law 2. a professional pragmatic: dealing or concerned with facts or actual practice in a reasonable and logical way instead of depending on ideas, theories or speculation; practical precarious: 1. something that is not certain 2. risky or subject to chance 3. something which lacks security and is in a possibly dangerous situation precede: 1. to exist before something 2. to come before 3. to have a higher rank than someone precedent: 1. a practice or act in the past which is used to justify a similar practice in the present preceding: 1. before 2. prior to precipice: 1. a very steep side of a mountain or cliff, typically a tall one 2. a dangerous situation that could lead to harm or failure 3. a very dangerous situation precipitate: 1. cause (something) to happen quickly, suddenly, unexpectedly, or prematurely before expected, warranted, needed, or desired 2. throw headlong; hurl downward 3. fall; fall downward suddenly and dramatically precise: 1. accurate; exact 2. meticulous or exacting preclude: 1. to make something impossible or prevent 2. to deter or impede something from happening precocious: 1. (especially of children) unusually advanced or mature in development, especially mental development 2. appearing or developing early precursor: a person or thing that goes before another person or something else and that often leads to or influences its development; forerunner; harbinger predecessor: 1. the previous occupant of a post or a role 2. something that comes before another related thing predicament: 1. a difficult, uncomfortable, embarrassing or dangerous situation that is often difficult to get out of predict: 1. to say that something is going to happen before it actually does 2. to foretell 3. to announce in advance predilection: 1. a personal preference towards something 2. a special liking of something predominant: 1. the most powerful 2. the most common 3. superior or supreme predominantly: 1. chiefly 2. mainly 3. principally preliminary: 1. introductory 2. leading up to the main event or thing prerogative: 1. a privilege or something that one is permitted to do that others aren't 2. an advantage 3. a right presume: 1. to believe something is true, despite not knowing whether or not it is 2. to act in a certain way, even though you don't have the right to behave that way presumption: 1. the act of assuming 2. something assumed 3. the act of believing something without seeing proof pretentious: trying to appear or sound as more impressive, successful, or important than someone really is, especially in matters of art and literature pretext: a false reason or motive that you pretend to have in order to hide your real reason or motive for doing something; excuse previous: 1. anterior 2. something coming or occurring before another event 3. prior primary: 1. fundamental; principal 2. basic 3. essential 4. happening first prime: 1. chief 2. most important 3. of the highest quality principal: 1. most important 2. main 3. first in rank or order principle: 1. a basic rule or law 2. a standard of behavior or morals prior: 1. coming before 2. preceding 3. previous or former priority: 1. something that is considered to be extremely important and has the ability to take place before other things 2. possessing the right to come before others pristine: 1. unspoiled; uncorrupted 2. new and in good condition 3. pure procedure: 1. a way of doing something 2. a medical treatment 3. course of action proceed: 1. to continue onward 2. to advance 3. to begin something process: 1. a series of happenings or actions that lead to a specific result 2. a naturally occurring series of changes procure: 1. obtain something, especially with care, effort, or difficulty 2. obtain (a sexual partner, especially woman) for another, for the purpose of prostitution prodigious: 1. very great or impressive in size, force, or extent; enormous 2. extraordinary; marvelous; wonderful; amazing profane: 1. to defile 2. to show a lack of respect for objects considered to be sacred or holy 3. to violate professional: 1. relating to or suitable for a specific profession 2. performing an activity to earn money instead of to relax or have fun 3. possessing the necessary qualities profound: 1. very deep 2. (of a state, quality, or emotion) very great 3. (of a disease or disability) very severe 4. (of a subject or idea) intellectually deep; entering far into subjects 5. (of a person or statement) having or showing deep thought or wisdom profuse: 1. created or given in large amounts; generous 2. plentiful 3. given abundantly or magnanimously prohibit: 1. to forbid or ban 2. to not allow or permit 3. to officially ban prohibitive: 1. something that discourages one from doing something 2. restricting people from doing something project: 1. a scheme or a plan 2. a proposal 3. a task which requires work to be done proletarian: 1. a member of the working class proliferate: 1. to increase or grow at a rapid pace 2. to multiply or reproduce quickly prolific: 1. producing a large amount of something, especially fruit, offspring or works 2. bountiful, fruitful or productive promote: 1. to raise in rank 2. to encourage or support 3. to encourage people to buy something 4. to give publicity to promulgate: 1. to put an official decree or law into effect via official announcement 2. to make something publicly known by officially announcing it propensity: 1. a tendency or natural inclination to behave in a certain way 2. a preference propitious: 1. likely to result in or show success 2. something advantageous 3. benevolent; favorable proportion: 1. the amount of something in relation to the whole 2. the comparative size or degree 3. the relation between size and number prospect: 1. the ability to do something, especially in the future 2. a possibility 3. chances or opportunities for success prospective: 1. something in the future that is expected or predicted to happen 2. probable or likely to happen prosperity: a successful, flourishing, or thriving condition, especially in financial respects; good fortune, wealth, success, etc. protocol: 1. the rules and regulations governing certain situations 2. a record of a transaction 3. a formal diplomatic agreement between two or more countries provincial: 1. from or related to a specific province 2. an unsophisticated person from the country 3. showing narrow-minded or unsophisticated thought or ideas prudent: 1. careful, and using good judgment in practical matters 2. careful in regard to one's own interests; provident 3. cautious or discreet in conduct; circumspect; not rash psychology: 1. the study of the human mind and human behavior publication: 1. something that's been published; printed matter 2. the process or act of making a book, magazine or newspaper available to the public publish: 1. to make a document available in digital or print format 2. to make something public or known purchase: 1. an object that has been bought 2. the act of buying something pursue: 1. to follow someone or something 2. to hunt for or look for quaint: 1. picturesque 2. old-fashioned 3. interesting or appealing yet quirky in an old-fashioned way qualitative: 1. relating to the quality of something quandary: 1. a dilemma or a problem 2. a state of uncertainty 3. a state of doubt or confusion quarantine: 1. forced isolation in which a person or an item is kept away from the public in order to avoid the spread of an infection quarry: 1. an open-air pit from which rock is excavated 2. a person or animal being hunted or searched for quell: 1. to suppress or stop something, especially through the use of force 2. to pacify or soothe a previously problematic situation querulous: often complaining, especially in a way that annoys other people quotation: 1. specific words that have been directly taken from a certain source 2. the act of using someone else's words quote: 1. to repeat someone else's words 2. to say something that has previously been said or written radical: 1. extreme; drastic 2. supporting drastic changes 3. very important 4. new and different ramble: 1. to walk about or move about in an aimless manner 2. to follow a winding path 3. to write or talk in an aimless, uncontrolled manner 4. to stroll or walk for pleasure rampant: (of something bad) growing, happening, or spreading quickly and in an uncontrolled way random: 1. possessing no specific plan or structure 2. done by chance range: 1. a set of things that are similar 2. the upper and lower limits 3. the period of time in which something can happen rash: 1. not cautious 2. acting without pausing to think 3. reckless ratify: (especially of governments or organizations) make (a treaty, contract, or agreement) official by signing it or formally accepting it ratio: 1. a rate 2. the relationship between two numbers or amounts rational: 1. logical 2. using reason to make decisions or act 3. sensible raze: 1. completely destroy a city, building, etc. 2. scrape or shave off; erase react: 1. to respond to a stimulus 2. to act in opposition 3. to change in response to a specific stimulus reap: 1. cut (wheat, rye, etc.) with a scythe, sickle, or reaping machine 2. gather or take (a crop, harvest, etc.) by cutting 3. gain or obtain as the reward of one’s own or another’s action, conduct, work, etc. rebuke: 1. to punish or scold someone severely 2. to express disapproval, often in a sharp way 3. to harshly criticize rebuttal: the act of proving that something is not true by using arguments or evidence; response with contrary evidence recalcitrant: 1. (of a person ) stubbornly refusing to obey authority, discipline, rules, orders, etc. 2. (of an animal ) refusing to be controlled recant: formally or publicly say that your past beliefs or statements were wrong and that you no longer agree with them reclusive: living alone and avoiding the company of other people, often for religious meditation; solitary recover: 1. to get something back 2. to reclaim 3. to recuperate from an injury or illness rectify: 1. correct (something that is wrong) or make something right or better 2. correct by calculation or adjustment recuperate: 1. to get better or recover from illness, financial loss or misfortune redress: 1. compensation or remedy for some wrong that was done against someone; retribution 2. rectification redundant: 1. superfluous 2. unnecessarily wordy 3. not needed referendum: 1. a direct vote in which the general public votes on the answer to a specific question or issue 2. a note or letter from a diplomat to his or her home country, asking for instructions refine: 1. to purify; to take impurities out of something 2. to make changes in order to improve something refurbish: 1. to restore something to its original quality 2. to renovate 3. to make something look like new again refute: 1. to prove that something is not correct or true 2. to deny something regime: 1. a government that is currently in power 2. a system of rules 3. a political system 4. a management system region: 1. a specific part of the world; a large area of land where the people or land possesses similar characteristics 2. a district 3. a part of the body register: 1. to record something in writing 2. to enroll a student in a school 3. to express or show 4. to convey regulate: 1. to create and impose rules for something 2. to adjust to ensure accuracy 3. to control; to manage reinforce: 1. to make something stronger 2. to enhance something 3. to support an idea by giving evidence or reasons reject: 1. to refuse something 2. to turn something down 3. to decline relax: 1. to stop doing something in order to rest 2. to slacken or make less rigid 3. to make less severe 4. to calm relaxed: 1. not strict 2. free 3. calm 4. informal release: 1. to let go or free 2. to emancipate 3. to allow something to flow freely 4. to make information available to the public relegate: 1. put (someone or something) into a lower or less important rank or position 2. refer, commit, or hand over for decision, action, etc. 3. (UK) moved down to a lower division relevant: 1. related to the issue being discussed or debated 2. pertinent 3. connected to an issue reliance: 1. a dependence on a specific person or object 2. the act of depending on someone or something relinquish: 1. give up (something, such as power, control, or possession), especially when you do not want to do this; retire from; abandon 2. surrender 3. let go (a grasp, hold, etc.) reluctance: 1. unwillingness or hesitancy to do something reluctant: 1. unwilling to do something 2. uneager to do something rely: 1. to depend on 2. to trust 3. to have confidence in remorse: 1. strong pain or sadness about something you have done and feel guilty about 2. regret remove: 1. to get rid of 2. to take away 3. to take off 4. to send away renounce: 1. give up (a claim, right, or possession, etc.), especially by formal announcement 2. give up (a cause, bad habit, way of life, etc.) voluntarily 3. reject; disown renovation: 1. restore to an earlier condition by making changes and repairs, especially an old house, building, room, etc. 2. reinvigorate; refresh; revive reprehensible: unacceptable, very bad, and deserving to be criticized reprieve: 1. a way out of,or temporary relief from a bad experience or situation 2. the deferment or complete cancellation of punishment reprimand: a severe, formal, or official rebuke, disapproval, or censure reproach: express disapproval of, criticism of, or disappointment in (someone), especially for not being successful or not doing what is expected repudiate: 1. refuse to accept or reject with denial 2. disown require: 1. to make something obligatory 2. to expect 3. to need something rescind: end, revoke, repeal, or cancel (a law, agreement, order, or decision, etc.) research: 1. to investigate 2. to make inquiries in order to find out information 3. to carefully study something in order to find out new information reside: 1. to inhabit 2. to live in a certain place 3. to exist resident: 1. someone who lives in a certain place or region 2. an inhabitant resignation: 1. the act of leaving a job or position by formally resigning 2. the formal, often written, declaration that one is leaving a job or post resilient: (of a substance or object) bouncing or springing back into shape, position, etc. after being pulled, stretched, pressed, bent, etc. 2. able to quickly become strong, healthy, happy, or successful again after an illness, disappointment, or other problem resolution: 1. a decision that is made by a group through a voting process 2. a personal promise to oneself 3. a formal statement of intent or opinion resolve: 1. firm or strong determination 2. a resolution made by a legislative body; a ruling resonant: 1. prompting thoughts of a similar experience 2. loud, clear, or deep 3. enduring 4. echoing resource: 1. material used to do or make something 2. a supply of something that can be used when required 3. a country's tools for generating wealth respite: 1. a short break or delay from work or an unpleasant experience 2. a postponement of punishment respond: 1. to answer 2. to react in a favorable way restore: 1. to bring something back to its original condition 2. to make something new again restrain: 1. to hold back or put limits on someone or something 2. to curb 3. to keep under control restrict: 1. to limit 2. to physically confine 3. to keep under control retain: 1. to remember information 2. to hold or keep someone or something 3. to hire someone by paying them an initial fee reticent: 1. not willing to tell people about one's thoughts, feelings, and personal affairs 2. uncommunicative, restrained, or reserved in style 3. reluctant; unwilling reveal: 1. to show or disclose 2. to divulge 3. to make known revenue: 1. income 2. money that an organization, government or company receives from different sources reverence: a feeling or attitude of deep respect, admiration, love, and awe for someone or something reverent: feeling, showing, or characterized by great respect and admiration; deeply respectful reverse: 1. to overturn 2. to send in the opposite direction 3. to move backwards revise: 1. to check something and make changes to make sure that it is acceptable 2. to change or amend 3. to alter revision: 1. a modification or edit of something 2. the act of looking over something that one has done revolution: 1. a huge change in something, such as a political organization or country 2. the circular movement around a certain celestial body 3. a complete cycle 4. a very important change in the way people act rhetoric: 1. a style of speaking or writing that is intended to influence people and that may not be honest or reasonable 2. the art, skill, or study of using language formally and effectively in speaking or writing rhetorical: of, relating to, or concerned with the art of speaking or writing that is effective or intended to influence, persuade, or impress people and that may not be honest or reasonable rife: 1. prevalent or abundant 2. widespread; common 3. full of (something) rigid: 1. stiff 2. hard 3. unyielding or not able to be bent 4. unable to be changed or modified rigor: 1. strictness, harshness, or severity 2. exactitude 3. inflexibility robust: 1. healthy 2. hardy or strong 3. sturdy and able to withstand detrimental conditions 4. successful role: 1. the part that a performer in theater acts out 2. one's proper function in society 3. a person's function rouse: 1. wake (someone) from sleep 2. cause (someone who is tired, lazy, or unwilling to do something) to become active 3. make angry or excited, as to anger or action; stir up 4. (nautical) pull or haul strongly and all together, especially by hand route: 1. a course or path of travel 2. a course that certain forms of transport follow habitually 3. a way of achieving something salient: 1. of utmost importance; prominent; notable 2. protruding beyond a line or surface 3. jumping sanction: 1. official permission or approval, as for an action 2. a threat to punish someone for breaking a law or rule 3. an official order, such as the limiting or stopping of trade, that is taken against a country in order to force it to obey international laws sanguine: cheerfully optimistic, hopeful, or confident, especially in a difficult situation satire: the use of humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticize someone or something and make them seem foolish, weak, bad, etc. saturate: 1. make something completely wet with water or other liquid so that no more can be absorbed 2. cause (a substance) to combine with, dissolve, or hold the greatest possible amount of another substance scale: 1. to climb a surface that is steep 2. to set something according to a scale or measure something by a scale 3. to remove something in layers or scales scapegoat: 1. a person who is blamed in place of others for something that is not their fault or doing scenario: 1. a possible situation 2. a written description or outline of a play, movie or other theater-based work schedule: 1. to arrange for something; to make arrangements 2. to plan for something 3. to make plans scheme: 1. an elaborate plan that is devised in order to gain something and, often, trick people 2. an official plan scope: the range of one's perceptions, thoughts, or actions; extent; bound scrupulous: 1. very careful about doing something correctly, giving a lot of attention to details 2. careful about doing what is honest and morally right scrutinize: examine or inspect (something) closely, thoroughly, and very carefully scurrilous: 1. fond of using coarse or indecent language 2. foul mouthed or obscene 3. slanderous section: 1. a piece of something 2. a part of a whole object 3. a smaller part of a book or a newspaper sector: 1. a division of a society or an economy 2. a part of something that is different from others secure: 1. safe 2. free from danger or worry 3. strong or stable security: 1. safety 2. a general freedom from risks seek: 1. to look for 2. to try and discover 3. to search for 4. to try to obtain (permission, etc.) select: 1. preferred 2. of a special value or importance 3. exclusive 4. discriminating 5. only the best sequence: 1. the order or pattern in which things happen or take place 2. a set of things that is put in a specific order serendipity: 1. the fact of finding interesting or valuable things by chance; unexpected and fortunate discoveries 2. accidental good fortune or luck serene: 1. tranquil, peaceful or calm 2. bright or clear 3. untroubled or unaffected series: 1. a sequence of things 2. a set of related objects 3. a collection of episodes of a television show that use the same characters in different situations shift: 1. a slight change in something 2. a change 3. a period of approximately eight hours during which workers perform their jobs shrewd: having or showing sharp powers to understand things and to make good judgments in practical affairs; astute shroud: 1. something that covers or hides something; hide from view 2. a cloth used to wrap a body for burial; wrap for burial 3. take shelter or harbor significant: 1. quite important 2. suggesting or showing a meaning 3. noticeable or detectable 4. noteworthy similar: 1. related to something else 2. nearly the same, but not exactly the same 3. comparable simile: (the use of) a phrase that describes something by comparing it to something else, always including the words 'as' or 'like' simulate: 1. to reproduce a situation 2. to feign 3. to do something that looks as if it is real when it truly is not site: 1. a place where something can be found or where something is located skeptical: 1. having, showing or marked by doubt 2. doubting 3. questioning skirmish: 1. a short or small battle 2. a minor fight in a much larger conflict 3. a squabble or a short argument slight: 1. small in size, degree, or amount 2. treat with disrespect or indifference; treat as unimportant sole: 1. the bottom part of a foot or shoe 2. the bottom part of an object such as a golf club or a plow solely: 1. exclusively 2. alone; not involving anyone or anything else 3. exclusively solicit: 1. to ask for something, often through a formal process 2. to petition solicitous: 1. showing care, attention, or concern about someone's health, feelings, safety, etc. 2. showing anxious desire; eager somber: 1. very sad and serious; gloomy; depressing or grave 2. dull or dark in color, especially grey or black somewhat: 1. slightly 2. a little bit 3. to a certain degree source: 1. the place in which something originates or which someone comes from 2. a point or place of origin 3. a person who provides information sparse: 1. not dense or thick 2. small in amount and not dense or crowded 3. scanty specific: 1. clear and precise 2. special 3. particular; relating to one specific person, group or thing 4. unique specified: 1. defined 2. thoroughly commented or explained 3. expressly stated specify: 1. to designate 2. to state in an explicit manner 3. to be specific sphere: 1. a globe; a ball shaped object 2. an area of knowledge, study or expertise spontaneous: 1. happening or done in a natural, often sudden way, without being planned or thought about 2. growing without cultivation or human labor, as plants and fruits sporadic: 1. occurring at irregular intervals; not constant or regular; patternless 2. appearing singly or at widely scattered localities, as a plant or disease spurious: 1. not genuine, authentic, or true; counterfeit 2. based on false ideas or bad reasoning squander: spend or use (money, time, supplies, or an opportunity) wastefully or extravagantly stability: 1. balance 2. firmness of position 2. being unlikely to change stable: 1. constant 2. unwavering 3. strongly fixed 4. firmly established stagnant: 1. (of water or air ) not flowing or moving, and often smells bad 2. not active, changing, or progressing staid: of a settled, unadventurous, sedate, and steady but boring character static: not moving, acting, or progressing, especially in an undesirable or uninteresting way statistic: 1. a numerical fact 2. the use of numbers to explain a situation statistics: 1. a field of study that collects and analyzes data 2. the data collected and what it means status: 1. one's standing in relation to others 2. one's position in society 3. a state of things or events staunch: very committed or loyal to a person, belief, or cause steadfast: 1. very committed or loyal to a person, belief, or cause 2. not changing, fickle, or wavering; constant stereotype: 1. an oversimplified way of looking at something 2. a simple and unwavering idea about what a certain person or group of people are like stock: 1. the supply of goods or merchandise available for sale or distribution in a store or warehouse 2. a supply of something for future use or sale 3. the shares of a particular company or corporation stoic: 1. not showing emotion or complaining, even when something bad happens 2. unemotional 3. indifferent to pleasure and pain straightforward: 1. clear and easy to understand 2. frank; honest 3. direct strategy: 1. a detailed plan of action 2. a way to approach a specific goal stress: 1. the pressure exerted on a physical object 2. emotional stress or anxiety caused by a difficult situation 3. emphasis placed on something stringent: 1. strict, rigid 2. binding 3. constraining 4. extremely limiting structure: 1. a free-standing building made from different parts 2. the way in which something is organized 3. the quality of being organized style: 1. a way of doing or expressing something 2. fashion 3. quality or attractiveness in design submit: 1. to hand in or present something to a teacher, boss or other other person 2. to permit someone to exercise control over you 3. to surrender to authority subordinate: 1. from a lower rank or position 2. inferior 3. less important subsequent: 1. following 2. succeeding 3. happening after something else subsidiary: 1. secondary 2. used to supplement something or someone 3. auxiliary subsidy: 1. money that a government gives a group to help it 2. financial assistance substantiate: 1. support with proof or evidence 2. give concrete form or body to; convert into substance; embody 3. give substance to; make real or actual substitute: 1. to temporarily replace someone or something with something else 2. to exchange one thing for another subtle: 1. thin, tenuous, or rarefied, as a fluid or an odor 2. not obvious, and so slight as to be difficult to notice, see, detect, or describe 3. able to make fine distinctions 4. making use of clever and indirect methods to achieve something successive: 1. consecutive 2. following 3. sequential successor: 1. a person who takes over for another person after they have left 2. someone or something that follows another succinct: 1. concise and clearly expressed 2. expressed in a short and easy to understand way sufficient: 1. enough as necessary 2. adequate suffragist: 1. a person who fights in favor of granting voting rights to people who do not have them, especially women sum: 1. the total of a calculation 2. an amount of money 3. the total amount of something in existence summary: 1. an explanation of something giving the main points or ideas of the original document or argument 2. a recapitulation superficial: 1. being at, on, or near the surface 2. shallow; not profound or thorough superfluous: being more than is needed, useful, or wanted; surplus; excessive supplant: remove or uproot (someone or something that is old or no longer used or accepted) in order to replace with (more powerful) someone or something else supplement: 1. to add to something, especially in order to make up for a deficiency 2. an addition 3. something added to make something complete supplementary: 1. used in order to complete something 2. additional suppress: 1. end or stop (something) by force 2. keep (something) secret; keep from appearing or being known, published, etc. 3. stop yourself feeling, showing, or being affected by an emotion surfeit: 1. an excessive or too large amount or supply of something 2. overeat or feed to excess 3. disgust caused by excess surmise: 1. to draw a conclusion or guess, usually with little to no proof or evidence 2. to conjecture surreptitious: 1. obtained, done, or made in a secret, stealthy way, especially because it would not be approved of; clandestine; secret or unauthorized 2. acting in a secret, stealthy way survey: 1. a poll used to measure public opinion or the incidence of something in a society 2. an examination of a subject or a situation 3. a careful examination of land in order to map it survive: 1. to live through an event 2. to stay alive 3. to continue to exist 4. to outlive someone susceptible: 1. easily influenced or harmed by something 2. (of a person) easily affected emotionally; sensitive 3. a person who is vulnerable to being infected by a certain disease, or to be affected by it more severely than others are suspect: 1. to distrust someone or something 2. to think that someone or something is responsible for a specific action or something bad suspend: 1. to delay something 2. to postpone 3. to stop something temporarily or permanently 4. to hang something in the air sustain: 1. to bear or to hold 2. to support 3. to keep something alive 4. to provide for 5. to deal with sycophant: a self-seeking person who attempts to win favor by flattering rich or influential people symbol: 1. a sign 2. a shape, object or picture which is used to represent something 3. something used to represent or show an idea tacit: 1. expressed or understood without being directly said or expressed; implied 2. unspoken; silent taciturn: tending not to speak much; not liking to talk; uncommunicative tactful: careful not to say or do anything that could offend or upset other people tangential: 1. slightly or indirectly related to what you are doing, discussing, or thinking about; not closely connected to something 2. merely touching; slightly connected; peripheral tangible: 1. palpable 2. able to be felt or touched 3. real tape: 1. a long, thin strip of material which can be used for a variety of purposes: to show a location, to stick objects together, to serve as a finish line, etc. 2. a cassette or video recorded on a strip of material coated in a magnetic covering target: 1. a goal 2. an object that is shot at 3. an objective 4. something that one wants to achieve task: 1. to assign a job to someone 2. to place a burden on someone team: 1. a group of people that work toward a common goal 2. two or more animals that work together to pull something technical: 1. mechanical 2. specialized 3. having or requiring specialized knowledge technique: 1. a way of performing a specific task 2. a method of doing something or carrying out a task 3. a technical skill technology: 1. the use of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, with special reference to its use in industry 2. applied sciences teem: 1. be full of things; abound or swarm; move in large numbers 2. be present in large quantity temerity: 1. recklessness or disregard for danger or consequences 2. foolish boldness 3. audacity temper: 1. to neutralize or relax something 2. to moderate 3. to cause a substance to reach its desired consistency or hardness, often by putting it through a heating and cooling process temperate: 1. emotionally calm and controlled 2. not extreme in behavior or language 3. (of weather conditions) neither very hot nor very cold temporary: 1. limited 2. not lasting or permanent 3. passing 4. brief tenacious: 1. holding firmly 2. that clings; adhesive; sticky 3. holding together firmly; cohesive 4. very determined to do something; persistent; stubborn tense: 1. tight 2. pulled to its limit 3. nervous or stressed 4. rigid tension: 1. a feeling of nervousness before something 2. a feeling of anger or hostility between two or more people 3. the degree to which a string, rope or wire is tensed tentative: 1. provisional 2. not fixed or positive 3. experimental 4. hesitant or without confidence; uncertain terminate: 1. to stop 2. to put an end to 3. to sack or fire 4. to conclude termination: 1. the conclusion to or end of something 2. the act of ending something terse: 1. short or curt, often in a way that is interpreted as unfriendly 2. concise and to the point text: 1. a piece of writing such as a book 2. all the words that were said in a speech 3. written words theme: 1. the topic or subject discussed in a book, essay, conversation, debate, etc. 2. a subject that is brought up frequently 3. the style upon which something is based theory: 1. a hypothesis 2. an idea that tries to explain something 3. an idea used to justify or explain something therapeutic: 1. possessing curative powers 2. used to make someone healthier or happier 3. producing a positive effect on the body or mind thereby: 1. because of 2. thus 3. as a result thesis: 1. the subject to be written about or debated in an essay 2. a long study written while one is studying one's doctoral degree 3. the main idea of a written work thwart: 1. to prevent something from happening 2. to hinder, frustrate or foil timorous: 1. lacking confidence or nervous 2. showing fear 3. demonstrating timidness topic: 1. a subject that is currently being examined or discussed in a conversation, book, essay, article, etc. 2. a theme tout: 1. try to persuade people to like, accept, or buy something by praising or recommending highly and repeatedly, especially loudly and in public 2. (British) buy tickets for an event and resell them at a much higher price trace: 1. to follow or to track 2. to find the starting point of something 3. to copy a drawing by placing a piece of paper over the original and following the lines one can see through the paper tradition: 1. heritage 2. behavior and customs that are passed from one generation to the next 3. an old custom tranquil: 1. calm 2. relaxed 3. free from disturbances 4. quiet transfer: 1. moving something from one place to another 2. an exchange 3. giving property or financial holdings to another person transform: 1. to change something 2. to convert 3. to totally change something in an attempt to make it more attractive or improve it transformation: 1. a major change in something or someone 2. a change into something entirely different 3. the process of changing into something totally different transgress: 1. to surpass the limits of what is considered by society to be acceptable 2. to sin 3. to go beyond transient: existing, happening, or staying somewhere for only a short time; temporary transit: 1. the act of passing through a certain location 2. a public system of transportation 3. the act of moving people or goods from one place to another transition: 1. the conversion from one state to another 2. to cause someone or something to convert from one state to another transmission: 1. the act of sending out a message or broadcasting a message 2. the act of passing something from one person to another transmit: 1. to convey 2. to send across 3. to communicate or broadcast 4. to give a virus or illness to others 5. to pass from one person to another transport: 1. to carry something 2. to bring something from one point to another 3. to move goods or people using vehicles traverse: 1. to move across or through 2. to cross 3. to extend across treatise: a formal, usually lengthy, book or piece of writing about a particular subject trend: 1. the general direction in which something is moving or the way people are behaving 2. a fashion 3. a tendency tribulation: 1. a great trouble, difficulty, or suffering 2. something that causes great trouble, difficulty, or suffering trifling: of very little value or importance; trivial; insignificant trigger: 1. to bring about 2. to cause 3. to set something off 4. to make something happen trivial: 1. of no real importance 2. ordinary 3. insignificant or minor truant: 1. a student who avoids school without permission 2. a lazy person 3. a person who avoids or neglects his or her work duties truculent: easily annoyed or angered and always ready, eager or quick to argue or fight tumult: 1. a loud noise that is produced by a large group of people 2. a violent or turbulent uprising; a riot 3. confusion ubiquitous: present, or seeming to be present everywhere, especially at the same time; omnipresent ultimate: 1. last 2. found at the end of something 3. the best or the worst of something 4. the most extreme ultimately: 1. finally 2. in the end 3. at last umbrage: to be displeased, offended or annoyed by what someone has said or done undergo: 1. to go through a certain procedure or experience 2. to experience something 3. to endure 4. to suffer something underlie: 1. to serve as a basis for 2. to be a strong influence on 3. to be situated below something underlying: 1. fundamental 2. lying beneath 3. basic undertake: 1. to agree to do something 2. to begin something, especially a long and difficult process 3. to pledge to do something unequivocal: 1. clear and easy to understand or see 2. without doubt 3. unambiguous ungainly: (of a person or movement) awkward; clumsy; not moving in an attractive or graceful way uniform: 1. a set of clothes that must be worn to be in a specific school or do a specific job 2. an outfit worn by people from a same school or doing the same job unify: 1. to join two or more units together in order to create a newer, larger unit 2. to combine 3. to consolidate unique: 1. special 2. being the only one of its kind 3. unparalleled 4. extraordinary unprecedented: 1. new and never been seen or done before 2. without precedent upshot: 1. the outcome or result 2. the main idea; the gist 3. the conclusion utilise: 1. to employ something 2. to use something 3. to put to use for a specific purpose utility: 1. a public service 2. something useful to the public 3. usefulness utter: Complete vacuous: 1. having or showing a lack of intelligence, interest, purpose, or thought 2. without contents, meaning, importance, or substance; empty valid: 1. sound 2. binding 3. well-grounded 4. effective 5. possessing legal force validity: 1. well grounded 2. the state of being valid 3. having legal force vanquish: completely defeat in a contest, conflict, or competition variegated: 1. marked with different and varied colors, stripes, spots or other markings 2. diversified or varied vary: 1. to change 2. to fluctuate 3. to alter 4. to differ vehement: 1. powerful 2. forceful 3. intense; impassioned 4. expressing strong feelings and great energy vehicle: 1. any device which is used to transport one or more people around 2. a means or way of expressing a certain idea venerable: deserving respect, especially because of age, wisdom, character, long use, etc. venerate: regard or treat (someone or something ) with great respect version: 1. an individual's view about something that happened 2. an adaptation 3. a form of a book or other object that is slightly different from other books or objects vex: make someone angry, annoyed, confused, or worried, especially with trivial matters via: 1. by way of or through vigilant: carefully watchful and alert to detect and avoid possible danger or difficulties vindicate: 1. clear from criticism, blame, guilt, suspicion, etc. with supporting arguments or proof 2. defend or maintain (a cause, claim, etc.) against opposition violate: 1. to infringe on 2. to profane 3. to break a promise or a law 4. to do harm virtual: 1. not existing in the real, physical world 2. created by a computer or the internet 3. nearly (the thing mentioned) 4. imaginary virtually: 1. essentially 2. almost 3. just about virulent: 1. (of a disease or poison) extremely infectious, malignant, or poisonous; deadly 2. (of a pathogen, especially a virus) highly infective 3. bitterly hostile or antagonistic; full of hate and violent opposition viscous: (of liquids) thick and sticky and does not flow easily visible: 1. able to be seen 2. frequently seen in public; conspicuous 3. obvious vision: 1. sight 2. the ability to see 3. a mental image 4. something or someone considered to be extremely beautiful visual: 1. capable of being seen with one's naked eye 2. related to sight 3. relating to things that can be seen vital: 1. necessary for life 2. related to life 3. showing great energy or liveliness 4. of great importance; crucial vocation: a particular occupation, business, or profession, especially one for which a person is particularly suited or qualified vociferous: 1. highly opinionated and loud about one's beliefs 2. clamorous or offensively loud volatile: 1. (of a substance) vaporizing or evaporating quickly 2. likely to change suddenly and unexpectedly or suddenly become violent or angry; unstable; explosive voluble: 1. talkative; speaking with enthusiasm 2. fluent 3. expressed in many words 4. garrulous volume: 1. the amount of space taken up by something 2. an amount of something 3. the sound level voluntary: 1. not obligatory 2. unenforced 3. given or done by choice voracious: 1. consuming or eager to consume very large amounts of food 2. very eager in some desire, activity or pursuit waive: 1. to defer something 2. to relinquish a right to something 3. to not enforce something 4. to put aside wane: 1. to decline in power 2. to lose strength or intensity 3. to approach the end 4. to ebb or dwindle waning: decreasing gradually in size, amount, intensity, degree, or quality wanton: 1. a cruel, malicious or violent action done, shown, used deliberately, unprovokedly and unjustifiably 2. careless; reckless wary: cautious or nervous about possible dangers or problems; watchful waver: 1. be undecided between two opinions, possibilities, or courses of action or you keep choosing one way and then the other 2. become unsteady because of weakness, emotion, tiredness, etc. wax: 1. to get larger or increase in size 2. to become stronger 3. to put wax on a surface 4. to express oneself welfare: 1. the well-being of a person or people 2. financial aid from a government to a person in need whereas: 1. in contrast to the fact that 2. although 3. since whereby: 1. by which widespread: 1. able to be found in many different locations 2. extensive 3. popular 4. occupying a wide space wrath: 1. extreme anger 2. vengeance or punishment as the consequence of anger wretched: 1. very unpleasant, unhappy, ill, or unfortunate state or in very bad condition 2. poor in quality or ability; very inferior zeal: great energy, effort, and enthusiasm, as in working for a person, cause, or object zenith: 1. the point in the sky that's directly over one's head 2. the highest point or peak