Common Prepositions for Examinations A preposition is a word which shows the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and another word in the sentence. Prepositions are usually (but not always) placed before the noun or pronoun which they govern. This chapter deals mainly with common prepositions and contains simple instances of their use. The following is a list of all the common prepositions; explanations (where necessary) and examples follow each preposition. The chief meanings of each preposition are given. Some of the explanations (e.g. under = lower than, vertically below, beneath) may at first appear to be interchangeable in one or more of the examples given. Further examination, however, will reveal that they are not interchangeable in every case. about (1) concerning, of. He talked about his old friend. Note that concerning, of, and about are not interchangeable after the verb to be and are rarely interchangeable when about governs a noun or a pronoun following another noun: The lecture was about Charles Darwin. That book about Napoleon is very interesting. (2) near(ly), approximately (a place, a time, a quantity, etc.). It was about two o'clock when he left. The bomb fell about here. (3) here and there, in various parts of, all around. The traveller roamed about the town trying to find a suitable hotel. We wandered about the city on our first evening there. above (1) higher than, on top of (without touch­ing), over. See over (1). The big bird flew above the trees. There is a monkey on the branch above you. (2) more than, over. Above two hundred people attended the meeting. (3) superior to. AH these men are honest and above bribery. across (1) from one side to the other of. The little boy ran across the street. (2) on the other side of. He saw a grocer's shop across the street. after (1) later than (a time). / shall be able to see you after six o'clock. Can you come to see us after the holidays? (3) following, behind. Go after him quickly and give him his umbrella. (4) This painting is after Turner. Note the difference between the following two sentences: He painted it after Turner. (= in the same manner as) He painted after Turner. (= at a later time than) (5) as a consequence of. The headmaster would not grant the class a holiday after their bad behaviour. (6) in spite of. After everything I said, you still had to do it! against (1) Stop knocking the stick against the fence. (2) It is difficult to run against a strong wind. (3) The struggle against poverty and hunger is a hard one. (4) contrary to. Smoking is against the school rules. (5) in contrast with. The beautiful villa stood out against the ugly slums surrounding it. (6) in preparation for. She began to save money against the time when she would no longer be able to work. (7) in exchange for. He bet me his gun against my radio. (8) opposed to, not in favour of. He was against the scheme from the very start. along There are many tall trees along the road to the village. amid(st) She stood in tears amid the alien corn. The great man stood amidst the cheering crowd. Note that there is no difference between amid and amidst. Both are found more in litera­ture than in daily speech. among(st) (1) from person to person. The host moved about among his guests. (2) Divide this cake among all the boys here. See between. (3) one of. / am among the great man's followers. Note that there is no difference between among and amongst, and both prepositions must be followed by a plural noun or pronoun. around Many people stood around the injured man. The news soon travelled around the world. See round. Round and around are usually interchangeable in daily speech. However, in formal English around is used chiefly to mean on every side of or about, and round has the meaning of so as to encircle or enclose. at (1) His father appeared at that moment. We arrived at two o'clock. Used to denote a point of time, usually moments and clock times. (2) They will begin their journey at Easter. Used before the names of festivals, etc. but not before days: They will begin their journey on Easter Sunday. See on (4). (3) He lives at the white cottage. Used before the name of a particular place (usually an address, a building, a village, or a small town). See in (4). (4) to, towards. The goat ran at the passer-by. Note that to cannot be substituted for at in contexts like the following : The soldiers aimed at the target. She threw the book at me. (Cf. She threw the book to me.} (5) for. I bought six pencils at fifty cents each. (6) The examiner soon put the candidate at ease. Used before certain nouns to express states, conditions, emotions, etc. (See Chapter 3) before (1) in front of. The accused man was brought before the magistrate. Antonym = behind. (2) My sister arrived home that night before ten o'clock. Antonym = after. (3) rather than. Death before dishonour. behind (1) at the back of. His wife stood behind him, looking over his shoulder at the man he was facing. (2) on the far side of, beyond. The chemist's shop is a few yards behind the church. (3) supporting. / knew that my friends were behind me in the matter. (4) inferior to, lower than. John is behind the rest of the class in mathematics. (5) hidden by, being concealed by. There is something strange behind this apparently simple occurrence. (6) late (with). I am behind with my work. (7) in the past (and finished). Your hard days in prison are behind you now. below (1) lower than. Just below the top of the wall there was a brick missing. Antonym = above. See under (1). (2) Your composition was below average. John is below the rest of the class in mathe­matics. Below and behind are interchangeable in the second sentence above, but not in such phrases as below average. Beneath can be substituted for below in most contexts. See note on beneath (3). beneath (1) below. The road twisted through the valley beneath us. (3) underneath. Beneath his rough exterior was a heart of gold. (4) It was beneath his dignity to plead with her father. Note that beneath and below are interchange­able except in certain established phrases: beneath notice, beneath contempt, beneath one's dignity, below average, below par, below the belt. beside (1) by the side of, near by, close to. Looking up, I saw a man standing beside me. (2) compared with. He isn't very good at arithmetic, but beside Harry he is a genius at it. (3) not concerning, irrelevant to. The point you have just raised is beside the question. (4) except, apart from. He trusted no one beside a very old and faithful servant. besides in addition to. There were three others present at the meeting besides Mr Day. Besides and beside are easily confused by overseas students. Apart from the difference in meaning, beside is used only as a preposition, whereas besides can also be used as an adverb to mean moreover or furthermore. between Many grammar books used to insist on the use of between in relation to two persons or things and among or amongst in relation to more than two. This distinction is no longer observed. There is nothing wrong with writing: We shall share the bill between the three of us. It is often necessary in geographical contexts to use between for more than two objects: Switzerland lies between Italy, Germany, and France. (1) across (a space). His body was firmly wedged between the two rocks. (2) across (a period of time). What did you do between two o'clock and three o'clock? (3) in the middle of. The journey by air to England takes between ten and twelve hours. The girt was torn between her love for her father and her desire to see justice done. (4) separating. There is a wide river between the two villages. (5) connecting, uniting. There is something between the two men: find out what it is. (6) shared by. He divided the money between John and me. When co-operation is expressed, between is more commonly used than among. The members of the class collected fifty dollars between them. betwixt An archaic preposition used sometimes in poetry to mean between and frequently shortened to 'twixt. As ’twixt two equal Armies. Fate Suspends uncertain victory . . . (From Donne's "The Ecstasy") beyond (1) past, at the farther side of. The wood is beyond the stream. (2) past, out of reach of. The apples on the tree hung beyond the outstretched hands of the small boy. The evil man is not beyond salvation. (3) later than. It was beyond midnight when we left the party. but except. See except. No one but Sherlock Holmes can solve this problem. Is there nothing to drink but water? by (1) Jack was punished by his father. Used after verbs in the passive voice to denote the agent of the action. Cf. with — by means of. By is used to signify the agent by whom (or which) the action is done; with is used to signify the instrument with which the action is done. See with (1). He was murdered by the angry mob. (= The angry mob murdered him) He was murdered with this old knife. (= Someone used this old knife to murder him) (2) at the side of, near. The old woman wished to be buried by her husband. There was a large dog lying by the entrance. (3) via. We travelled to India by South Africa. (4) past. A horse ran by the group of be­wildered visitors. (5) by means of. He passed the examination by sheer hard work. This old engine is driven by steam. You can always contact me by telephone. (6) during. The pilgrims travelled by night and rested by day. Note: by night = during the night. (7) at or before (a time). The ship will arrive in Southampton by ten o’clock. I shall have finished by next Friday. Note that the Simple Future or Future Perfect Tense is often used with this construction. Care should be taken not to confuse until ( = up to the time of) with by ( = at). Consider the following sentences: The ship will not arrive in Southamp­ton by ten o’clock. (= The ship will not arrive at ten o'clock) The ship will not arrive in Southamp­ton until ten o’clock. ( = The ship will arrive at ten o'clock) (8) By Jove, Tom won the race. Used in oaths, despite in spite of. They will come with us despite the bad weather. Not much used in conversation. down (1) from the top to the bottom of. We scrambled down the hill. (2) along. / went down the country lane for a few miles. during (1) throughout. Sentries guarded the camp during the night. (3) at some particular time in. Many people were made homeless during the floods. except AH the pupils attended the meeting except Tony. Many students experience difficulty in deciding when to use except, but, save, and when to use except for, but for, save for. Except = not in­cluding: except for = on condition that you ignore the following (fact). Except should be used if exceptions are made from plural nouns or words with a plural mean­ing : I go to school every day except Sunday. However, if the exception is not from the plural noun and the word modifies another word or group of words in the sentence, except for should be used: The roads are deserted except for a few cars. If the exception is made from a singular noun denoting a complete unit in itself, the word to use is except for. This is a good essay except for the first paragraph. for (1) on behalf of. Mr Smith said that he signed the cheque for his wife. (4) in place of, instead of. He used the ash-tray for a paper-weight. The abbreviation M.A. stands for Master of Arts. (5) in exchange for, for the price of. / will give you £100 for your car. (6) in order to obtain. He plays the piano for pleasure. (7) at the cost of. He could not sing for his life. (8) regarding. As for this class, I do not think their chances of passing the test are very good. Note that as generally precedes for when used in contexts similar to the above. (9) in search of, to obtain. Many people went to Alaska for gold. (10) on account of, because of. He hired a guide for fear of getting tost. (11) towards. The ship sails for the Far East. Used after verbs expressing departure or direction towards a place: e.g. leave for, set off for, make for. (12) used for. This wardrobe is for clothes. (13) She baked a cake for her son (i.e. intended for him to eat). What can I do for you? (i.e. to help you). Used to denote a recipient of some­thing. (14) This pen is no good for you. It was fortu­nate for you that he was there. The room is too big for you. Used after certain adjectives and adverbs when they affect a person or a thing. (15) His hopes for success in the election were soon dashed. The neighbouring country showed its desire for peace by reducing its armed forces. Used after certain nouns and verbs ex­pressing a wish, a hope, or an expectation. (16) making an allowance for, considering the circumstances. He is a big boy for his age. (17) in certain expressions such as go for a walk, go for a holiday, etc. (18) Plenty of fresh air will be good for his health. Smoking is bad for the lungs. (19) in support of, in favour of. How many are for the motion? How many are against it? (20) as. The committee chose Mr Ismail for vice-president. This room is used for a spare bedroom. (21) during. / have lived in Ceylon for two years. He hadn't seen John for five years. Note that for is used to denote a period of time: since is used (as a preposition) to signify the beginning of a period of time. / have lived in Ceylon since 1962. Occasionally, for can be omitted (whereas since can never be omitted). / have lived in Ceylon two years. Consider the difference between the following two sentences: Has she been absent for the last year? Has she been absent since last year? See since. from (1) separated from, distant from. Your house is a long way from the beach. The village is ten miles from the highway. (22)have an origin in. He is from China. Wine is made from grapes. (23)The musicians travelled from London to Singapore. It was a good film from beginning to end. Count from 1 to 20. Used to express the point of departure. (24)have as a reason orcause. The boy screamed from fear as the tiger came towards him. (25) Choose a book from this shelf. I cannot distinguish him from his brother. Used to signify comparison or difference. in (1) during (a period of time). Jim answered all the questions in ten minutes. Generally used with the Past Tense to denote a duration of time. (26)after (a period of time). She will meet us in two hours. Generally used with the Future Tense to denote the period of time within which the action will take place. (27) during, at some time during. She teaches in the morning only. The examination will be in June. They will return home for their holidays in summer. We left Nigeria in 1960. Used before parts of the day, weeks, months, seasons, and years. (See Appendix, page 134) (28)She lives in London. Used before the names of (important) towns, cities, countries, etc., or any large area. See at (3). (29)That book is not in the library. He has a sword in his hand. I saw him in the theatre. Used to denote a state or position in contexts like the above. (30) He is going in the front door of the building. Pour some water in the bottle. Note that in and into are usually interchange­able when movement is denoted (except when in has the meaning of through as in the first example above): into, however, is often used after go. (31)Between the trees I caught sight of the man in the brown suit. Who was the girl in the blue dress? Used often to denote the clothes, etc., in which a person is dressed. Note that with is used to denote physical characteristics and any­thing which is carried. Compare the following two sentences: She went to the party in a new dress (i.e. wearing a new dress). She went to the party with a new dress (i.e. carrying a new dress). This distinction is, however, a fine one, and with is often used colloquially in such contexts instead of in. See with (2). (32) You are wasting your efforts in attempting this impossible feat. Used before a gerund ex­pressing some kind of activity. inside He was waiting inside the cinema. Once inside the door, the thief took off his mask. into (1) He went into the house. The elephants wandered back into the jungle. Used to express a movement inwards: into can never be used to express a state. (33) He put all the money into a big pile. He translated the play into French. Used to express a change of condition. (34) divide so as to form several parts. His mother cut the cake into six pieces. like She saw a strange animal like a dragon. Your shoes are just like mine. I want a pen like John's. He raved like a madman. P number of gram­marians would class like as an adverb of degree in the last sentence above. (He raved like a madman = He raved like a madman raves.) near Mrs Jones sat near the fire. There are many trees near the new school. He insisted on stand­ing near me. of (1) belonging to: part of. She was the daughter of my friend. The leaves of this tree are beginning to fall. The wood of this desk is cracked. (2) from. Tibet is north of India. Note that of can be used with certain words to mean from: die of wounds, expect something of a person, etc. (3) have an origin in, come from. He congratu­lated himself on coming of a good family. (4) selected from, belonging to. / gave him a book of mine. (5) showing the identity or quality of. The chair is (made) of wood. A bridge of steel stretched across the river. (6) The teacher took out a piece of chalk. I have bought a new pair of gloves. We travelled over a mile of rough road. The little boy wanted to buy a pound of biscuits. Used in such phrases to show measurement or amount. (7) among. The murder could have been com­mitted by any of those present at the party. (8) about, concerning. He spoke of the great inventor with much respect. Note that of cannot be used to mean about after the verb to be. See also about (1). (9) It is kind of you to present the prizes. It was wicked of him to plot against the king. It was clever of the king to discover the plot. (1 0) having. He was a man of great determina­tion. Used after a noun or pronoun to form an adjectival phrase. Of is frequently used to show qualities of character and also to show ages. She is a girl of much ability. He was a man of thirty. (11) The island of Hong Kong is a great trading centre. The Isle of Capri is near Naples. You are now in the City of Leeds. off (1) away from. He broke a piece off the cake. She cut a slice off the loaf. He jumped off the wall. Keep off the grass (= Don't walk on the grass). (2) less than. They are selling the radios at twenty per cent off the market price. (3) near (of ships). / saw the ship off the jetty. on (1) on the surface of, on top of. There is a cat on the roof! I like that picture on the wall. (2) covering, in contact with a surface. She was wearing a wedding-ring on her third finger. Although the actor was dressed in a suit, he had sandals on his feet. (3) Is Sam Jones on the ship? His friends live on the other side of the town. Used to denote a general position. (4) I m going to a football match on Saturday. We arranged to meet on June 20th. What are you doing on Christmas Day? (Cf. What are you doing at Christmas?} Used to indicate a position in time, usually a day or a date. See at (2). (5) as soon as, immediately after. On reaching home, I had a bath and changed my clothes. (6) as a result of. On further consideration of your plan, I think it advisable to call for more assistance. (7) about, concerning. / was asked to give a talk on my research. We talked on many subjects. Note that on is usually interchangeable with about and concerning. (8) Who is on the jury? Are you on the com­mittee? (but Are you in the club?) Used chiefly to show membership of small or exclusive associations. (9) near to. / saw a shadow on my left. Used chiefly with right and left. (Note: in front of me, at my side, etc.) (10) The house is on fire. I received the book on loan. He acted on impulse. Used before many nouns. (See Chapter 3) onto See on to on page 8. opposite The shop opposite the school sells radios. The cinema is opposite (to) our house. out Out is never a preposition. When followed by of, the phrase means the opposite of into. See out of on page 8. outside (1) He was waiting outside the cinema. She was standing outside the door. (11)apart from, except for. He is the only person who knows about the plan outside the committee. (12)beyond. If you insist on going outside the law, you must expect legal penalties. over (1) above (without touching). A sign hung over the inn door. Over is often interchangeable with above in such contexts, but over has the meaning of verti­cally above, while above implies only higher than. See above (1). (2) above (touching), on the surface of. Grass is growing over the aerodrome. The burglar put a mask over his face. Note that above can never be substituted for over in these contexts. (3) across. He walked over the road to greet me. (4) from one side to the other of. The boys quickly climbed over the wall into the orchard. (5) superior to. A new manager has been appointed over us. (6) more than, above. Over five hundred people were present at the ceremony. See above (2). (7) about, concerning. He went to see Mr Jones over his son's poor examination results. The quarrel was over a small child. past (1) The soldiers marched past the church. (8) The poor woman is past praying for (= we have given up hope). (9) He is past forty ( = over forty years old). It is now ten past two. round (1) rotating, so as to encircle or enclose. The earth goes round the sun. Around is not substituted for round with this meaning in formal English. See around. (2) surrounding, on every side of. The enemy gathered round the village. Around and round are interchangeable in such contexts as above. (3) throughout, to all parts of. He went round the whole town asking for work. save except. See except. The whole class save Peter arrived on time. Used little in conversation. since (1) I have not seen David since 1950. He has been absent since last week. Used before an expression denoting a definite point in past time to show a continuous period of time extending from the point in the past to the present moment. (2) after. / have visited Ann only once since her accident. The trains run less frequently since the introduction of the new timetable. They have seen the thieves several times since the robbery. Used before an expression denoting past time to show an event or events which happened at particular points during the period of time extending from the past to the present. Note: (i) The Simple Present or the Present Perfect Tense is generally used before phrases beginning with since. (ii) Since is used more frequently as an adverb than as a preposition. through (1) between the parts of, from one end to the other of. He peered through his binoculars. We went through a wood to the cottage. (2) all of. He searched through my belongings. (3) because of. by means of, on account of. / met her through John. He passed the examina­tion through hard work. throughout through the whole of. Throughout his life, the'doctor always tried to help others. till See until. to (1) / travelled by boat to Bombay last year. They returned to their village. The acrobat jumped to the ground. Used to denote a point of arrival or completion. Note that it is often used with this meaning after the verb go in such phrases as: go to bed, go to church, go to prison, go to sea, go to town, go to work, (but go to the office, go to the city, go to the shop, etc.: go home) (2) in the direction of. towards. While on his way to the cinema, he met an old friend. The wood Ues to the north of the road. (3) as far as. / went with the guide to the foot of the mountains. (4) until. He said he would be busy from two o'clock to four o'clock. (5) You will be late: it is already five (minutes) to nine. Used in telling the time to mean before. See past (3). (6) This film is nothing to ( = in comparison with) the one I saw yesterday. The chances of success are a hundred to one. The ratio is four to nine. Used often to show a comparison or ratio, (but: The gradient of this hill is mostly one in five.} (7) Stand shoulder to shoulder. There was much hand-to-hand fighting in the streets. I would like to meet that villain face to face and tell him exactly what I think of him. Used in such expressions to express closeness involving a certain opposition or competition. (8) To my utter astonishment, he laughed when he heard the news. The small boy did not appear frightened, much to the dismay of his kidnappers. Used frequently before nouns express­ing emotion to denote the result or effect of an action on another person. (9) Give it to him. Her father brought the basket to her. Add it to the bill. Used to introduce an indirect object. Note that the sentence pattern consists of: Subj. + Verb + Direct Obj. + Prep. + Ind. Obj. e g. Her father brought the basket to her. Many of these patterns can be changed to: Subj. + Verb + Ind. Obj. + Direct Obj. e.g. Give him it. Her father brought her the basket. However, certain verbs will not permit of such a change: Add it to the bill. Join the end to this piece. (10) To is also used as a particle marking the infinitive (i) after certain verbs, (ii) in infinitive phrases, and (iii) to denote purpose. The stranger suddenly began to sing. "To be or not to be, that is the question." / went home to find my book. Note that to in these cases is not a preposition but a particle. toward(s) (1) in the direction of, to. The wounded man crawled towards the door. Towards is preferable to to, if the idea of moving in the direction of is stressed. (11) in relation to, with regard to. / felt a lot of gratitude towards my host. (12) for the purpose of. You should save as much money as possible towards your coming holiday. (13) near, just before. We are now coming towards the end of the cave. They left the party towards midnight. Note: toward is sometimes used in poetry, and even in conversation, instead of towards. under (1) lower than, vertically below, beneath. There was a black spot under his left eye. We sheltered under the big tree. Under and beneath are often interchangeable; below, however, is not always interchangeable, for it means merely lower than, while under sug­gests vertically below. Compare the following two sentences: He hid under the table (= under­neath the table). He hid below the table (= lower than the top of the table.) Antonym = over. See below (1). Note that under and beneath are often used figuratively, while below cannot be used in this way. He became ill under the heavy burden of work. The staves cried out under the oppression. (2) below (the surface of). The stranger had a gun under his cloak. (3) less than. This car cost under £500. Under a quarter of the members attended the meeting. (4) inferior to. At least ten boys were under John in the results of the test. (5) subject to. His father could not agree to Bill working under such conditions. This road is under repair. (6) -sheltered by. / was no longer frightened because I was under the protection of my big brother. We stood under the wall white the stones flew overhead. (7) in the reign of. Sir Francis Drake lived under Queen Elizabeth I. underneath (1) There is a blot underneath the first Une on that page. We were standing underneath an old arch. (8) He was wearing a thick vest underneath his shirt. Underneath is frequently interchangeable with under, beneath, and below. until (till) (1) up to the time of. The children stayed awake till midnight. I shall be absent till January. (9) before. Until his accident, he had always been strong and healthy. Till is generally used before a single word or a phrase; until is more common at the beginning of a sentence. unto Archaic and literary. (No longer used in modern English.) Unto has the same meanings as to except as a particle marking the infinitive. See to. up The brave fireman quickly climbed up the ladder and rescued the old woman. Once up the moun­tain. the climbers found the air cool and fresh. upon Upon/On our arrival, the natives began to sing and dance. The lecture will be upon/on the effects of the radio satellite. But: / hope to see him on (not upon) Saturday. This preposition is a compound of up and on, and may be used instead of on in all cases, ex­cept when on denotes a position in time. How­ever, on is much more commonly used, especially in colloquial English. See on. with (1) by means of. He sharpened his pencil with a small knife. I cannot write with this pen. He was struck with a blunt instrument. With denotes the instrument with which the action is done; by can sometimes be substituted for with in contexts containing the Passive Voice. By, however, cannot be interchanged with with in other contexts (as in the first two examples above). See by (1). (10) having. / bought the chair with the broken leg. He felt unhappy until he met a man with no money at all. I saw the man with the scar on his face. He spoke with a foreign accent. She was talking to the lady with the large basket. With is used to form phrases showing posses­sion or certain characteristics. It is used in rela­tion to people to show physical features and to denote anything which is carried (e.g. a basket). See in (7). (11) in the possession of. You may leave your case with the porter. (12) on the side of. The Americans fought with the English against the Germans. Are you with me or against me? (13) against. Why do you wish to quarrel with me? It's no good trying to compete with those who have so much more experience than you. (14) in the company of, among. / am going to England with my sister. She is playing on the lawn with her friends. (15) regarding, concerning. Some teachers are very good with young children. What does he want with you? (16) because of. She laughed with joy. (17) in spite of. With all your faults, I still like you. (18) With certain people, truth appears to be no longer important. (19) at the same time as. The old man gets up every morning with the sun. (20) in proportion to. The petrol consumption usually increases with the age of a car. (21) The sick man climbed the steps with great difficulty. He witnessed the ceremony with considerable pride. With a grinding of brakes the train came to a halt. Used in many similar adverbial phrases showing manner. (22) Off with his head! ( = Cut off his head) Away with you! (= Go away) Down with all traitors! (=Let all traitors be punished) Used immediately after adverbial particles in impera­tives like the above. See Appendix VIL within (1) inside or in (a place). No sound came from within the big house. Within is not often used now with this mean­ing; in or inside can be substituted for within. (2) inside (a period of time). You must pay me back within one month. (3) not beyond. A man should always try to live within his means. We are now within sight of the airport. without (1) not having, lacking in, free from. The poor man went without food and shelter for several days. I can't pay my bill, as I am without money. He came without delay. The boy climbed the diff without any fear. (2) alone, not in company with. Mr Joyboy is going on holiday without his wife. (3) so as not to. Can you dose the door with­out waking the baby? Used before other gerunds in similar contexts. (4) outside, beyond. There is a green hill far away Without a city wall (C. F. Alexander) Rarely used now, and never in speech. There are also a number of compound prepositions which are common in English and which have the force of a single preposition. along with together with, in company with. He went on the dangerous journey along with his two friends. but for But for the doctor's skill, he would have died. To decide when to use but and when to use but for. see except on page 3. down to The water is now down to the level of the bridge. except for The road was deserted except for a few cars. To decide when to use except and when to use except for, see except on page 3. from above, etc. A voice was heard from above the house. A man emerged from beneath the lorry. Most of the children came from near the school. From may precede many other prepositions. into See into on page 4. near by/near to The wood is near by/near to the school. on to The thief climbed on to the roof. The thief climbed onto the roof. Both the above sentences are correct for this compound preposition may be written either as two separate words or as one word in many cases, though onto is becoming rare. However, on to must be written as two words when on is part of a phrasal verb (i.e. an adverbial particle). The travellers agreed to carry on to Australia. opposite to Do you see the man standing opposite to the teacher? (Opposite, however, is more usual.) out of (1) expresses a movement outwards. The man came out of the hotel. (Antonym = into) (2) outside, beyond. London Airport is a few miles out of London. (3) on account of, because of. He fell in love with her out of pity. (4) a part of. The juggler caught the balls nine times out of ten. (5) not in. The car is out of action. My radio set is out of order. over against near by, adjacent to. The cupboard is over against the window. over and above besides. The employer promised his men an increase in wages over and above the granting of shorter hours. round about approximately (reinforcing the idea of about). He earns round about €20 a week. save for It is a good book save for the last chapter. To decide when to use save and when to use save for. see except on page 3. upon See upon on page 7. up to as far as. During the floods the water came up to the bottom of the window. (2) on the authority of. According to the doctor, Mr Smith has been ill for a long time. apart from besides. What do you study apart from English? as for so far as it concerns, regarding. As for the thief, I am sure that he will soon be caught. See for (6). as from The guarantee will cease to be operative as from 24th April 1962. Used mainly in formal letters. Compound Prepositions Made Up of Two or More Prepositions Only You are asking for combinations consisting exclusively of two or more prepositions, without nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or conjunctions. Examples: From under From behind From beneath From within Out of Up to These are combinations of prepositions, not ordinary multiword prepositional expressions such as because of, in front of or according to. 1. Complete List with Examples No. Combination বাংলা অর্থ Example 1 From under নিচের স্থান থেকে The cat came out from under the bed. 2 From beneath নিচের দিক থেকে He emerged from beneath the table. 3 From below নিচ থেকে A strange noise came from below. 4 From above ওপর থেকে The bird appeared from above. 5 From behind পেছন থেকে Someone called me from behind. 6 From beyond দূরবর্তী স্থান থেকে A voice came from beyond the hills. 7 From within ভেতর থেকে A sound came from within the building. 8 From outside বাইরের দিক থেকে Someone knocked from outside. 9 From inside ভেতরের দিক থেকে He shouted from inside the room. 10 From between মাঝখান থেকে A child appeared from between the trees. 11 From among অনেকের মধ্য থেকে He stepped forward from among the crowd. 12 From around চারপাশের দিক থেকে People came from around the country. 13 From across ওপার থেকে We heard music from across the river. 14 From through মধ্য দিয়ে বাইরে থেকে Light came from through the narrow opening. 15 Out of থেকে বাইরে He walked out of the room. 16 Into ভেতরে She went into the kitchen. 17 Onto ওপরের দিকে The cat jumped onto the table. 18 Upon ওপর He placed the book upon the desk. 19 Within ভেতরে / সীমার মধ্যে Stay within the boundary. 20 Without ছাড়া He left without his umbrella. 21 Throughout সর্বত্র / পুরো সময়জুড়ে It rained throughout the night. 22 Up to পর্যন্ত The road goes up to the village. 23 Down to পর্যন্ত / নিচের দিকে The water came down to his knees. 24 Away from থেকে দূরে Keep away from the fire. 25 Off of থেকে দূরে / থেকে নিচে He fell off of the bicycle. Compound Prepositions Compound prepositions are prepositions consisting of two or more words that function together as a single preposition. They express relationships of time, place, direction, cause, purpose, manner, possession, reference, exception, and contrast. Examples: According to the rules, everyone must obey the law. Because of heavy rain, the match was cancelled. In front of the school, there is a large playground. Below is an extensive, exam-oriented list with Bangla meanings and examples. 1. Compound Prepositions of Time No. Compound Preposition বাংলা অর্থ Example 1 According to অনুসারে According to the schedule, the train leaves at 8 a.m. 2 Ahead of আগে He arrived ahead of time. 3 As of থেকে / অনুযায়ী As of Monday, the new rules will apply. 4 As from থেকে As from next month, the office will open earlier. 5 As of now এখন পর্যন্ত As of now, no decision has been made. 6 At the beginning of শুরুতে At the beginning of the year, we made new plans. 7 At the end of শেষে At the end of the meeting, everyone applauded. 8 At the time of সময়ে At the time of the accident, he was sleeping. 9 By means of মাধ্যমে He solved the problem by means of a calculator. 10 By the time of নাগাদ By the time of his arrival, everyone had left. 11 In advance of আগে We completed the work in advance of the deadline. 12 In the course of চলাকালে In the course of the discussion, an important issue arose. 13 In the middle of মাঝখানে He called me in the middle of the night. 14 In the wake of পরবর্তী সময়ে In the wake of the accident, new safety rules were introduced. 15 On the eve of প্রাক্কালে On the eve of the examination, he became nervous. 16 Prior to পূর্বে Prior to the meeting, we discussed the matter. 17 Subsequent to পরবর্তী সময়ে Subsequent to the investigation, he was released. 18 Up to পর্যন্ত You can submit the form up to Friday. 2. Compound Prepositions of Place and Position No. Compound Preposition বাংলা অর্থ Example 19 According to অনুসারে According to the map, the village is nearby. 20 Ahead of সামনে A bus was driving ahead of us. 21 Along with সঙ্গে She came along with her brother. 22 Apart from ছাড়া / ব্যতীত Apart from the library, there is a computer lab. 23 Away from থেকে দূরে Stay away from the fire. 24 Close to কাছাকাছি My house is close to the school. 25 Far from থেকে দূরে The station is far from here. 26 In front of সামনে A car is parked in front of the house. 27 In the middle of মাঝখানে There is a fountain in the middle of the garden. 28 Inside of ভিতরে He stayed inside of the building. 29 Near to নিকটে The hospital is near to my house. 30 Next to পাশে She sat next to me. 31 On top of উপরে The book is on top of the table. 32 On the other side of অন্য পাশে The bank is on the other side of the road. 33 Out of বাইরে / থেকে He walked out of the room. 34 Outside of বাইরে They waited outside of the building. 35 Underneath নিচে The keys were underneath the sofa. 36 With regard to সম্পর্কে With regard to your question, I have an answer. 3. Compound Prepositions of Cause, Reason and Purpose No. Compound Preposition বাংলা অর্থ Example 37 Because of কারণে The match was cancelled because of rain. 38 By reason of কারণে He was absent by reason of illness. 39 By virtue of বলে / কারণে He obtained the position by virtue of his experience. 40 Due to কারণে The flight was delayed due to bad weather. 41 For fear of ভয়ে He remained silent for fear of punishment. 42 For the sake of স্বার্থে / জন্য He sacrificed everything for the sake of his family. 43 In view of বিবেচনায় In view of the circumstances, we postponed the meeting. 44 In consequence of ফলস্বরূপ In consequence of his negligence, he lost his job. 45 In favour of পক্ষে The majority voted in favour of the proposal. 46 In order to করার উদ্দেশ্যে He studies hard in order to succeed. 47 On account of কারণে The school was closed on account of heavy rain. 48 Owing to কারণে The flight was cancelled owing to fog. 49 Thanks to কল্যাণে / কারণে Thanks to your help, I completed the task. 50 With a view to উদ্দেশ্যে He works hard with a view to passing the examination. 4. Compound Prepositions of Contrast, Concession and Exception No. Compound Preposition বাংলা অর্থ Example 51 Apart from ছাড়া / ব্যতীত Apart from John, everyone agreed. 52 As opposed to এর বিপরীতে I prefer tea as opposed to coffee. 53 Contrary to বিপরীত Contrary to expectations, he passed the examination. 54 Despite সত্ত্বেও Despite his poverty, he is honest. 55 In addition to ছাড়াও In addition to English, she knows French. 56 In spite of সত্ত্বেও In spite of the rain, they continued playing. 57 Instead of পরিবর্তে He drank tea instead of coffee. 58 Regardless of তোয়াক্কা না করে Regardless of the difficulties, he continued working. 59 Save for ছাড়া Save for a few mistakes, the essay was excellent. 60 With the exception of ব্যতিক্রম ছাড়া With the exception of Rahim, everyone attended. 5. Compound Prepositions of Manner, Means and Instrument No. Compound Preposition বাংলা অর্থ Example 61 By means of মাধ্যমে He opened the door by means of a key. 62 By way of পথে / মাধ্যমে We travelled to London by way of Paris. 63 In accordance with অনুসারে The work was completed in accordance with the instructions. 64 In the form of আকারে The information was presented in the form of a chart. 65 In the manner of পদ্ধতিতে He spoke in the manner of an experienced teacher. 66 In terms of বিচারে / পরিপ্রেক্ষিতে The plan is successful in terms of cost. 67 In the style of শৈলীতে The building was designed in the style of ancient architecture. 68 On foot পায়ে হেঁটে He went to school on foot. 69 With the help of সাহায্যে She completed the assignment with the help of her teacher. 70 With the aid of সহায়তায় He walked with the aid of a stick. 6. Compound Prepositions of Reference and Relation No. Compound Preposition বাংলা অর্থ Example 71 As for প্রসঙ্গে As for your proposal, I agree with it. 72 As regards সম্পর্কে As regards your application, we will contact you soon. 73 In connection with সম্পর্কিত He was questioned in connection with the case. 74 In relation to সম্পর্কিত We need more information in relation to the project. 75 In reference to প্রসঙ্গে I am writing in reference to your letter. 76 In respect of সম্পর্কে The company has made changes in respect of employee benefits. 77 In response to জবাবে He wrote a letter in response to the complaint. 78 With reference to প্রসঙ্গে With reference to your letter, we are pleased to inform you. 79 With regard to সম্পর্কে With regard to the matter, we need further discussion. 80 With respect to সম্পর্কে With respect to your request, we have reached a decision. 7. Compound Prepositions of Comparison and Proportion No. Compound Preposition বাংলা অর্থ Example 81 In comparison with তুলনায় In comparison with last year, sales have increased. 82 In contrast to বিপরীতে In contrast to his brother, he is very quiet. 83 In proportion to অনুপাতে The salary increased in proportion to experience. 84 Compared with তুলনা করলে Compared with his father, he is taller. 85 Compared to তুলনায় She compared life to a journey. 86 In line with সামঞ্জস্যপূর্ণ The decision is in line with company policy. 8. Compound Prepositions of Representation, Support and Opposition No. Compound Preposition বাংলা অর্থ Example 87 On behalf of পক্ষে / তরফ থেকে I spoke on behalf of my colleagues. 88 In favour of পক্ষে She is in favour of the new policy. 89 In opposition to বিরোধিতায় They protested in opposition to the decision. 90 In support of সমর্থনে He spoke in support of the proposal. 91 In place of পরিবর্তে Use honey in place of sugar. 92 On the part of পক্ষ থেকে There was no negligence on the part of the teacher. 9. Other Important Compound Prepositions No. Compound Preposition বাংলা অর্থ Example 93 In case of ক্ষেত্রে In case of fire, use the emergency exit. 94 In charge of দায়িত্বে She is in charge of the department. 95 In search of সন্ধানে They went into the forest in search of food. 96 In need of প্রয়োজন The poor are in need of assistance. 97 In possession of দখলে / অধিকারে He is in possession of valuable documents. 98 In exchange for বিনিময়ে He gave me his watch in exchange for my camera. 99 In return for বিনিময়ে She helped me in return for my support. 100 In the absence of অনুপস্থিতিতে In the absence of the principal, the vice-principal presided over the meeting. 101 In the presence of উপস্থিতিতে He signed the document in the presence of witnesses. 102 In search of খোঁজে The police went in search of the missing child. 103 In lieu of পরিবর্তে He received leave in lieu of overtime payment. 104 In excess of অতিরিক্ত The vehicle was travelling at a speed in excess of the limit. 105 In accordance with অনুযায়ী Act in accordance with the law. 106 In compliance with মেনে The company acted in compliance with the regulations. 107 By dint of জোরে / প্রচেষ্টায় By dint of hard work, he achieved success. 108 For want of অভাবে The project failed for want of funds. 109 For lack of অভাবে The match was abandoned for lack of light. 110 With a view to উদ্দেশ্যে He joined the course with a view to improving his English. PARTICIPIAL PREPOSITION Participial prepositions are words originally derived from verbs (usually ending in -ing or -ed) that function as prepositions in sentences. They are followed by nouns, pronouns, or noun phrases and express relationships such as time, reason, contrast, condition, or manner. Below is a comprehensive list of commonly used participial prepositions, with meanings and examples. 1. Common Participial Prepositions No. Participial Preposition বাংলা অর্থ Example 1 According to অনুসারে According to the teacher, the exam will be difficult. 2 Regarding সম্পর্কে I am writing regarding your application. 3 Concerning সম্পর্কে We discussed the issues concerning education. 4 Considering বিবেচনা করে Considering his age, he is very active. 5 Regarding সম্পর্কে He asked me regarding the matter. 6 Including অন্তর্ভুক্ত করে Everyone attended the meeting, including the manager. 7 Excluding বাদ দিয়ে The price is $100, excluding taxes. 8 Concerning সম্বন্ধে She asked several questions concerning the project. 9 Following পরে / অনুসরণ করে Following the meeting, we went home. 10 Pending অপেক্ষাধীন / নিষ্পত্তি না হওয়া পর্যন্ত Pending the investigation, he was suspended. 11 Assuming ধরে নিলে Assuming your proposal is accepted, what will you do? 12 Supposing ধরে নিলে Supposing it rains, what will happen? 13 Barring ব্যতীত / বাধা না ঘটলে Barring any unexpected problems, we will finish tomorrow. 14 Failing না হলে / ব্যর্থ হলে Failing an agreement, the matter will go to court. 15 Notwithstanding সত্ত্বেও Notwithstanding his illness, he attended the meeting. 16 Touching সম্পর্কে He made a statement touching the issue. 17 Given বিবেচনায় / ধরে নিলে Given his experience, he is suitable for the job. 18 Granted মেনে নিলেও Granted his ability, he still needs more practice. 19 Owing to কারণে The match was cancelled owing to heavy rain. 20 Due to কারণে The flight was delayed due to bad weather. 21 Based on ভিত্তি করে Based on the evidence, he was found guilty. 22 Compared with তুলনা করলে Compared with his brother, he is taller. 23 Compared to তুলনায় She compared life to a journey. 24 Depending on নির্ভর করে We may travel tomorrow, depending on the weather. 25 Failing that তা না হলে We can take a bus; failing that, we can walk. 2. More Participial Prepositions No. Preposition বাংলা অর্থ Example 26 Barring ব্যতীত Barring accidents, we should arrive on time. 27 During সময়কালে Nobody spoke during the lecture. 28 Pending চলাকালীন / নিষ্পত্তির অপেক্ষায় The application is pending approval. 29 Save ব্যতীত All were present, save John. 30 Excepting বাদে Excepting a few mistakes, the essay is excellent. 31 Past অতিক্রম করে / পরে It is past midnight. 32 Following পরবর্তী সময়ে Following his retirement, he moved abroad. 33 Notwithstanding সত্ত্বেও Notwithstanding the difficulties, they succeeded. 34 Worth মূল্যবান / যোগ্য This book is worth reading. 35 Respecting সম্পর্কে I have a question respecting your decision. 36 Approaching কাছাকাছি / আসন্ন Approaching the deadline, everyone became anxious. Note: Some words in this list have multiple grammatical functions. Their classification as prepositions depends on how they are used in a sentence.

General uses of prepositions A preposition typically comes before another word—usually a noun or pronoun. It tells us about the relationship between the noun or pronoun and other parts of the sentence. The name preposition (pre + position) means "place before" For example: The book is on the table. On is used here as preposition which shows the relationship of the table with other parts of the sentence. Following is the graphic description of some prepositions: Illustration of some Prepositions 1. To indicate time we usually use at, by, between, before. after, during, in, on, to, from, for, since, throughout, till, until He came at 7 o'clock. He will start the work after lunch. They came on Monday. Rita will return before dinner. It has been raining for a week. It has been raining since Monday. He will come by 7 o'clock. Masuda will come before 8 o' clock. I will go out during winter. He was here throughout summer. 2. To indicate position or location we usually use at, above, across, against, before, near, behind, in, inside, out, outside, on, over, under Kamrul is at home. I am in my class. He has no roof above his head. There is an umbrella over my head. There is a cap on his head. The man was standing against a wall. The thief stood before the judge. A child is walking behind his mother. He is sitting under a tree. The bank is just across the road. He stood neat the station. A beggar is standing outside the door. 3. To indicate direction we usually use on, into, on, to towards, up, down He is above me in rank. He climbed up a tree. He is going to school. He fired on the enemy. He is kind towards the poor. He walked across the road. 4. To indicate state or condition we use usually use : at, in, on, under He is in good health. That house is under repair. Boys are at play. He is at work. 5. From is used to indicate starting point of place and to is used to indicate destination He is going to market. She was going to hospital for treatment. They are coming from school. I had a phone call from my cousin. 6. To indicate- measurement/standard we use – at, by, for, to, etc. Rice sells at taka 25 a kilo. It is ten by my watch. My Mother is good at cooking. He is clever; at games. 7. To indicate Subject – matter we use - on, about. I told him about my school. I am reading a book on English grammar. He is careless about his health. Write a paragraph about/on your school. 8. To indicate– exception we use - but, except. None but Kamal can do this work. There is no man but feels pity for the poor. Everyone except me got the invitation 9. To indicate media we generally u by, in, with, without He came here by car. He speaks in English. We see with our eyes. We can't see without eyes. 10. In/at is used before a big place or time and at before a small place or time. He lives at Deana in Khulna. He went there at 7 o'clock in the evening. He is in America. They live in Chittagong. He lives at Mohakhali in Dhaka. At is used before nights noon, dusk, dawn etc. and in is used before morning, evening, afternoon etc. Mr. Samad came in the evening. She got up early inthe morning. We sleep at night. 11. In/at, to/into: In/at is used to indicate inside of something and its stability and to/intoto indicate entry or movement or to convert from. The students are in the room. They entered into the room. Water changes into vapour. Mary was in the garden. There is no milk in the pot. The ice melts into water. He ran into the room. He is in good health. The machine is now in good condition. Don't wait out side, come into the house. He is in bed. He is at the top of the class. He ran to school. He jumped into the river Gitanjali was translated into English. His love turned into hatred. Ice melts into water. You should speak clearly into the microphone 12. On, in, at : On is used before day/date, in before month/year and at before a fixed time. I shall meet you at 5 o'clock onSunday in Jaunary. They went there on Monday at 7 pm. I will go there in December. 13.After, in : Usually afteris used to indicate period of time in the past and in used to indicate period of time in the future. I returned to my native village after six months. We shall finish the work in a week. My father will come from the states in a week. My father died after two months. 14. In, within : In is used to indicate the last moment of period of time in the future and within is used to indicate the passing of period of time in the future. To indicate at the end of time we use in, and to indicate before specific time eds we use within. Mr. Ahad will come in a month (before the last moment of a month) We will finish the work within a month. (before the passing of one month) I shall return in an hour. I shall return within an hour. He will come here in an hour. (i.e. at the end of an hour) I shall go to Chittagong in a week. (at the end of a week) Chittagong He will come here within an hour. (before the hour is ended) I shall go to Chittagong within a week.(before the week ended) 15. In, by/before : In is used to indicate period of time in the future, by/before is used before a fixed time in the future. He will come in a month. I shall have finished reading the book by or before 6 pm. 16. In, on, to: In is used to indicate within the boundary andto indicate beyond the boundary and on to indicate on the boundary. The Sunderbans is to the south of the country. Dhaka is on the Buriganga. Dhaka Laboratory School is in the heart of the city. 17. Since, from, for : Since/from is used beforepoint of time and for before period of time. Since only indicates point of time in the past and fromindicate point of time in all tenses. It has been raining since morning. It has been raining for two hours. He has been here since Friday last. (point of time) I haven't seen him for a long time. (period of time) I haven't seen Kamal since September. (point of time) They have been playing in the sun for two hours. He has been ill since Monday last, I have not seen him since last week. He has been here since nine o' clock. I commenced work from Ist January. He will join school from tomorrow. 18.Between, among : Between is used to indicate between two and amongused to indicate more than two. Zimbabwe is situated between Zambia and South Africa. Divide the mangoes among the boys of class X. There is no difference amongst us. There is a village among the hills. The man divided his properties equally between his two children. Switzerland lies between France and Germany. But between is used when we indicate mutual cooperation of many people/objects. Mr Rahman divided his properties between his four sons. 19. Beside, besides: Beside is used to indicate at or by the side of and besides to indicate in addition to. He sat beside me. Besides this pen, I have no other pens. I have none to help me besides you. Besides my son, my cousin also sat beside me. Besides English, she knows many other languages. 20. By, with : By is used to indicate the doer/agent and withto indicate the instrument. The tiger was killed by the hunter witha gun. He killed two birds with one shot. He was stabbed by a lunatic with a dagger. 21.On, over : On is used to indicate the surface of the place and over to indicate above keeping space. Over can also be used to indication motion. The book is on the table. The clock is over the cupboard. The cat jumped over the box. 22.On is often used in speaking of things at rest, and upon of things in motion: He sat on a chair. The cat sprang upon the table. 23.Till/Until is used of time, and to is used of place: I slept till eight o'clock. He walked to the end of the street. . 24. For is use to indicate- aim/goal/purpose and targets He bought a pen for Mohan. He has started for Chittagong. He died for his country. He lives for others. 25. From is used to indicate- origin or source It is a poem of Nazrul. This road runs from Dhaka to Sylthet. He comes of a rich family. I borrowed a book from the library. 26. Of is used to indicate- relation and possession, parts and portion. This is the house of my friend. He is a servant of my uncle. This is the window of this house. This is the horn of my car. 27.Of/from - We use made from when the original materials or substances have been completely changed and cannot be recognized. Steer is made from iron. We make butter from milk. Plastic is made from oil. Wine is made from water and grapes. Bricks are made from clay. Use made of when the original materials or any substances have not been completely changed and we can still see them. This chair is made of wood. Pencil is made of wood. All the furniture was made of wood. 28.To indicate cause we use - from, of, for, with. My uncle died of cholera. He died from loss of blood. He is trembling with fear. He will suffer for his bad habits. . 29. On time/in time: on time means in the right time, in time means within the speculated time. The train left the station in time. Rassel is never at School on time. I want to get home in time. Will you be at home in time for dinner? 30.At the end/In the end: to indicate something has finished we use at the end and to indicate ultimate result of something we use in the end. I am going to Canada at the end of this month. In the end we sold out our old car and bought a new one. 31. For/during: 'For' is used to say how long something continues. During is used to say when something happens. My father was in hospitalduring the summer. My father was in hospital for six weeks. We watched TV for two hours last night. I spent two months in England during/in summer. We'll be on holiday during/in August. It must have rained during the night. 32. Over/above: When one thing is at a higher level than another we use either above or over. Our plane was flying above/over the clouds. They built a new room over/above the garage. There is a bridge over the river. To indicate motion we use over not above On our way to Pakistan our plane flew over India. (not, above the India) He threw the ball over the wall.(not, above the wall) We use 'over' 'not above' when one thing covers or touches another. He put on a coat over his shirt. Throw the water over the flames. The truck was coming across/over the river. 33.Before/by/within To indicate specific time we use before/by and to indicate period of time we use within We have to be at home by /before 5 o'clock. You must come back here by/before 3 - p.m. I posted the letter today, so my father would get in by the day after tomorrow. He will finish the exam within 8 days. . 34. By/with: to indicate person as medium we use by and for any object we use with. The tiger was shot by Karim with a rifle. The Tajmahal was built by Shahjahan. The snake was killed by Mr. Kamal with a stick. 35. To indicate the means of transport we usually use by. But to indicate travelling by foot or by cycle we use on . My father went to Chittagong by train/by bus/by car/by plane. Reba usually goes to School by car. To indicate the way of travelling we use by by road, by rail, by air, by sea My sister went to London by air. I go to school on foot but my brother goes to school on a bicycle. 36. Where a Preposition is not used No preposition is used before 'adverb' or 'adverbial phrase'. The boy left the hostel bag and baggage. (not- with bag and baggage) He tried heart and soul to pass the examination. (not- with heart and soul) No preposition is used before adverb of time or frequency. He goes for a walk every morning. (not- in every morning) I am going to Chittagong this morning. (not- on this morning) No preposition is used before a Noun when it is used as an adverb of place or time. My house faces west. They are going home. Please wait a minute. We ate mangoes yesterday. We don’t use preposition with Transitive verb The poet describes nature. He discussed this problem He investigated the case. Rina resembles her mother. I recommended him. He resigned his post. We reached the station in time.

250 Words Important to the SAT Reading Review these frequently found SAT vocabulary words to help you perform your best on the Words-in-Context questions and to fully understand the reading passages. Abject—Abject is often used to describe negative things and heighten the negativity. You might see loneliness, poverty, or sadness described as being abject. It describes the highest level of loneliness, poverty, or sadness a person could reach. Example sentence: Having lost his wife to the bubonic plague, the young man fell into abject sadness that did not lift until life provided him with a new companion some 25 years later. Abode—Put simply, an abode is a place where people live. It could be anything from a house, to a cave, to an apartment, to a van. If humans take shelter there, it can be called an abode. Example sentence: “Welcome to my humble abode,” said the nomad, as he lifted a flap to allow me entrance to his colorfully furnished canvas home. Abstract—When something is abstract, it isn’t concrete or tangible. It might exist as an idea only (the concept of gravity is abstract), or it might be something that you can touch but that represents ideas or feelings (like abstract art, which is art that does not depict real items). Example sentence: She soon realized that while they often had long talks about the future, they were not concrete discussions. Rather, he discussed the future abstractly, as something he couldn’t really see. Accentuate—When you accentuate, you emphasize that something is important. Example sentence: The chef likes to use seasoning that accentuates the flavors of the main dish. Acknowledge—To acknowledge someone or something is to notice it and make sure it knows that it has been noticed. If a student raises her hand during a lecture, a teacher may nod toward the student to acknowledge the student. That is, the head nod says, “I see you have your hand raised. Just a moment while I finish up my thought.” Example sentence: After training longer and harder than any of his teammates, the new tennis player was proud to receive the “most improved” award as an acknowledgement of all his hard work. Admonition—An admonition is the noun form of the word admonish. Therefore, an admonition is the scolding you might receive if you have done something wrong. Example sentence: Having been caught with her hand in the cookie jar, the little girl hung her head and waited for the admonition she was sure she would receive from her parent. Affluent—To be affluent is to be very well off financially. Example sentence: Having grown up in an affluent home, John Smith was well accustomed to all the luxuries and sophistication of upper-class life. Agitate—To agitate means to work up or disturb. The big post that is sometimes in the middle of a clothes washing machine is called an agitator because it helps work the soap into a lather. You might also agitate a human or an animal by annoying them or frustrating them until they become all worked up. Example sentence: As the baby’s cries grew louder and louder, the other theatergoers became more and more agitated until someone was finally so fed up that he asked the parents to take the baby outside. Aggrandize—If you notice the word grand in aggrandize, it may help you remember how this word is used. Generally, to aggrandize something is to make it grander; oftentimes people mentally aggrandize and think of things as grander than they really are. Example sentence: Since they lived in different states, the young couple had spent a lot of time apart. When they finally saw each other again, they realized that they had each aggrandized the other, and were disappointed in the real person in front of them. Aggregate—When discussing the aggregate (as a noun), you’re talking about the whole, not the parts. Aggregate can also be a verb in which you build up the parts to create a whole. Example sentence: I’ve been very busy at work since my superior asked that I aggregate all the available data on consumer habits and present it as a complete report to the CEO. Ambiguous—If something is ambiguous, it has more than one possible interpretation. Example sentence: The poet was intentionally ambiguous, keeping readers guessing as to her true intentions. Amicable—To be amicable with other people means to get along with them. It is a warm word often used to describe friendly, but not overly friendly, relationships with coworkers, neighbors, and other acquaintances. Example sentence: After the hubbub from the move settled down, the roommates forged an amicable relationship. While never becoming close friends, they were more than happy to bring in the other’s mail and to live in relative peace and harmony. Analogous—When two things are analogous to each other, they can be compared to one another. Often, this comparison will help clarify something about one of the things being compared. Think of the word analogy when thinking about what analogous means. Example sentence: Finding my missing phone was analogous to trying to find a needle in a haystack—it was pretty hopeless. Analogy—An analogy is a comparison between two items using like or as. Example analogy: The young boy’s jealousy grew inside him like a little green monster, waiting to escape. Anomaly—An anomaly is something strange or out of the usual pattern of things. If, for example, a very kind and sweet classmate lost their temper just one time, you might call that occurrence an anomaly. Example sentence: The scientist assured the worried townspeople that the strange lights at night were merely a meteorological anomaly and not the signals of arriving aliens. Antipathy—If you were to hate someone’s guts, you might say you felt antipathy toward them. It is a very negative feeling toward another person or thing. Example sentence: While he loved his wife very much, he felt nothing but antipathy toward his in-laws, which put a definite strain on their marriage. Apparition—Apparition sounds like the word appear. An apparition is something that suddenly appears. Oftentimes, ghosts and other supernatural phenomena will be described as being apparitions. Example sentence: The youth quaked as they heard a strange sound; they should have never broken into the abandoned house, which was full of apparitions. Arbitrary—This word can usually be replaced with the word random. Example sentence: The seating chart had previously been arbitrary, but the teacher had to be more deliberate in assigning seats during the second quarter so as to prevent cheating. Ascertain—To ascertain something is to find it out or confirm it. For example, the police may hold a person for a certain amount of time while they try to ascertain the details of the crime committed. Example sentence: The town waited with bated breath as the counters worked to ascertain the winner of the mayoral election. Aspire—If someone were to tell you to “aspire to higher things,” it might be interpreted as “dream big.” Aspiring means working toward a lofty goal. Example sentence: Though I’m only a yellow belt at the moment, I aspire to be a black belt in a few years. Autocratic—An autocrat is someone in charge who has all the power. The czars in Russia, for example, were autocrats. There was no governmental power outside of them. Autocratic, then, is the adjectival form of autocrat —it can be used to describe someone who is acting like an autocrat. Example sentence: Mrs. Nafziger is a very strict teacher and is quite autocratic in the way she runs her history classes. Beget—When you beget something, it means you take steps to bring that thing into existence. It can also refer to an action that leads to something. You might say that if you pass around a petition to bring chicken nuggets back to the cafeteria, you are trying to beget change. (Don’t mess this word up with the similar-sounding word baguette, which is a long, thin loaf of French bread.) Example sentence: Planting seeds in the spring is the only way to beget a harvest in the fall. Benevolent—To be benevolent is to be kind. Quite often, this word is used to describe elderly people who are willing to give away all they have and charities that work to better people’s lives by giving. Example sentence: When hard times hit the community, many people turned to the benevolent philanthropist who live just outside of town. It was well known that he would help everyone he could. Bestow—To bestow something is to give it to someone. This is often use when giving titles and other honors. Example sentence: After his heroic actions on the battlefield left him with grave injuries, the government bestowed upon the soldier the Purple Heart medal. Calibrate—To calibrate something is to adjust it so that it runs the way it should. This is especially applicable to machines that have readouts. If your car’s speedometer tells you that you’re going 30 miles per hour when you’re really going 55 miles per hour, then you need to have your speedometer calibrated. Example sentence: The old oven was in bad shape. When we set it to 350, it only reached 200. We called a repair person to calibrate the dial, and that fixed the problem. Calisthenics—Calisthenics are a type of exercise that rely on body weight. They include push-ups, sit-ups, jumping jacks, and other simple movements that require no equipment. Example sentence: While the elderly man was far past the point in life where he could lift heavy weights, he still stuck to the daily calisthenics routine that he had in the Army some 50 years earlier. Celestial—When something is celestial, it has to do with outer space. Example sentence: When studying astronomy, it is helpful to have a celestial map for reference. Censure—To censure someone is to give them a formal reprimand. Quite often, governments hand out censures to their members for having done something wrong, but not necessarily illegal. Example sentence: The young representative received a censure after his foolish and dangerous antics were published by a respectable newspaper. Circulation—Circulation is quite often thought of in relation to blood moving through the body, but it can refer to anything moving back and forth or around in a predictable pattern. Example sentence: The circulation of rumors can be quite detrimental to a person’s reputation. Coerce—To coerce someone is to get them to do something by threat of force. Example sentence: When asking nicely fails to work, bad people often turn to coercion to get what they want. Cognition—Cognition is the ability to understand something. When people get older and develop dementia, quite often their cognition is negatively impacted. Example sentence: Getting plenty of sleep is instrumental in increasing one’s cognition. Colloquial—The word colloquial almost always describes language. Colloquial language is everyday language. In English, for example, you probably use a lot of colloquial language with your friends, but likely speak a bit more properly to teachers and other adults. Example sentence: When my turn came to speak to the foreign dignitary, I did my best to speak formally and avoid using colloquial language. Commercial—Commercial has to do with the buying and selling of goods. For example, if you begin a commercial enterprise, you are likely setting out to go into business to buy, sell, create, or distribute goods. Example sentence: Many companies now use overnight delivery to get their commercial goods to the customers who have ordered them. Complementary—When something is complementary, it goes well with the thing around it. Example sentence: Milk and cookies are complementary foods that I greatly enjoy eating simultaneously. Complimentary—Something that is provided free of charge. Also, a compliment is a nice thing to say about someone. Example sentence: Compliments about your excellent work cost the teacher nothing—they are complimentary. Conflate—Oftentimes, we are warned not to conflate things. This means we need to keep the two things separate and not assume that they are the same idea. For example, in history class you may conflate the feminist movement and the suffragette movement. While they have some similarities, they aren’t the same thing. Example sentence: Be careful not to conflate infatuation and love. That is a surefire way to end up with a broken heart. Conjecture—To make a conjecture is to hypothesize based on limited evidence. Example sentence: The weather person put forth an unusual conjecture as to the cause of the storm. Conjure—To conjure is to bring something up. When telling a scary story, you may conjure up images that are terrifying to the listeners. Example sentence: If a small child demands candy when you have none, you might reply, “I ’m afraid I can ’t conjure up sweets out of thin air just because you want them.” Consensus—When everyone agrees, there is a consensus. Example sentence: In government, rarely is there a consensus. Rather, there are a multitude of opinions vying to be heard. Consequence—Consequences are the results of an action taken. There can be positive consequences, but more often this word is used to indicate a negative result or a punishment for negative actions. Example sentence: If you fail to show up at practice, the consequence is that you don’t get to play. Conservator—A conservator is a person whose job it is to conserve or preserve something. This word could also be used to just mean a general guardian. Example sentence: The art collection had a marvelous conservator who did all she could to ensure that the art would be enjoyed for many generations to come. Constitution—We are likely all familiar with the governmental term constitution. But this word can also apply to someone’s bodily health or how something is put together. Any of those three meanings could pop up on the SAT. Example sentences: Since the constitution of the carriage was not very sturdy, a delegate was involved in an accident on his way to the Constitutional Convention. Luckily, the delegate had a strong personal constitution, and he recovered easily in just a few days. Contingent—When something is contingent, it is relying on other factors to come to be. An outdoor field trip, for example, might be contingent on the weather. Example sentence: I am planning on traveling to the capital to watch the soccer team play for the state title. That is contingent, of course, on us winning this last playoff game. Conventional—When something is conventional, it follows the traditional rules that are set up. For example, a bride wearing white is very conventional while a bride wearing bright red would be unconventional. Example sentence: My family tends to be very conventional at Thanksgiving. We always eat a turkey with stuffing, mashed potatoes, and a few side dishes, and then we have pumpkin pie for dessert. Convey—To convey something is to get it across. You could convey a tin of cookies safely from your grandmother to your mother. If you are an effective public speaker, you can convey ideas from your mind to the minds of others. Example sentence: Try as he might, the student teacher continually failed to convey his expectations to the class. This resulted in a rather disorderly classroom experience. Convoke—Generally, the word convoke means to call a meeting. Example sentence: Convoke the leaders of the nations; we must come together or we shall surely perish. Convulsion—To convulse is a physical movement. Think of a person having a seizure—all of their muscles are convulsing. They are therefore having convulsions. Example sentence: The audience stared in amazement as the snake charmer’s snake exited the basket, its body racked with convulsions as it heard the mesmerizing music. Cultivate—To cultivate something is to bring it up or to try to make it grow or exist. Farmers cultivate crops. Your teachers try to cultivate in you a love of learning. Example sentence: Holidays like the 4th of July, Labor Day, and Memorial Day all have a side effect of cultivating a sense of patriotism in the population. Dawdle—To dawdle is to lag behind. Example sentence: “Don’t dawdle or you’ll miss the school bus,” the grandfather called, as he turned around to see what was taking his grandchild so long. Decipher—To decipher something is to figure it out. A spy might decipher a special code, for instance. Example sentence: The store clerk looked puzzled as he tried to decipher why the customer in front of him was so upset. Degrade—To degrade is to break something down slowly over time. Example sentence: While the engine was still sound, the body of the car had degraded to the point where it was no longer safe to drive. Demarcation—To demarcate is to divide areas into clear boundaries. Example sentence: The surveyor put a clear line of demarcation between the two properties. Demur—To demur is to politely say no to something or avoid it. Example sentence: When offered a second helping of food, the man politely demurred since he already felt full. Desolation—Desolation is total abandonment, emptiness, and destruction. Desolation occurs when everything of value and everything alive is destroyed. Example sentence: War seemed more imminent each day, and families quickly began fleeing the city, worried at what seemed to be the certain desolation to come. Despoil—Despoil is related to the phrase the spoils of war. The spoils of war are the things that invaders would take from the inhabitants upon victory. Pretty much anything of worth would be looted or plundered. To despoil is the act of taking away anything of value. Example sentence: The greedy criminals broke into the historic mansion to despoil it. Desultory—Something that is desultory lacks consistency or order. Example sentence: The desultory classroom discussion randomly went from one topic to another, with no clear progression of ideas. Deter—To deter someone is to stop them from doing something. Example sentence: The would-be bank robbers were deterred when they saw that security had been increased dramatically. Discretion—Someone with discretion has good judgement and avoids revealing secrets. Example sentence: The principal consistently demonstrated discretion; students and teachers knew they could share their thoughts with her without others finding out what they said. Disenfranchise—To disenfranchise is to take away someone’s right to vote, or prevent them from using it. Example sentence: For most of human history, women were disenfranchised. Disparity—A disparity is an inequality or a difference between two things. For instance, there may be a disparity between the posted rules in a classroom and the rules that are actually enforced. Example sentence: Small children are quick to point out any disparity between the dessert they receive and the dessert their brother or sister receives. Disseminate—To disseminate is to pass out or to ensure the spread of something (quite often information). Example sentence: At the end of the security meeting, the participants were asked not to disseminate the knowledge that they had acquired, since doing so could put people in harm’s way. Dissimilar—Things that are dissimilar are not the same (not similar). Example sentence: While they had grown up in the same house, at the same time, with the same parents, the twins were quite dissimilar. Diverge—When two things move apart, they diverge. (This is the opposite of when two things come together, which is when they converge.) Example sentence: Quite often, when students graduate, they diverge from their friends and move on with life. Doctrine—A doctrine is a sincerely held belief, often of the religious variety, but also political or other beliefs as well. Example sentence: Some people do not stand for the pledge as it goes against their religious doctrine—this is their right under the First Amendment. Doldrums—The word doldrums is often used to describe a time in which nothing happens. It is also used in sailing to describe an area of water that is not moving in which a sail boat would be trapped. Doldrums are never a good thing and can sometimes even be used to describe depression, boredom, and other negative mental states. Example sentence: After his breakup, he entered a period of doldrums that lasted for several weeks. Domestic—When something is described as domestic, it is related to the home. If someone hires domestic help, they are likely hiring someone to help take care of their house or something in it. It could be a gardener, maid, or cook. Example sentence: Compared to the other families of 1900, their marriage was unconventional, with her working and bringing home a paycheck while he stayed home and attended to domestic matters. Dominion—Dominion is control or authority over someone or something. Example sentence: The king frequently exercised his dominion over the serfs to extract more and more work from them in less and less time. Dubious—To be dubious is to be doubtful and uncertain. Example sentence: While my friend was eager to explore the cave, I was much more dubious about doing so. Earnest—When someone is earnest, they are showing that they are serious. They really believe what they are saying and they find it important that you understand that. Example sentence: The young man spoke earnestly as he told her of his feelings and tried to convince her to accept his proposal. Eddy—An eddy is when water or air moves swiftly in a circular motion. Example sentence: The boat, caught in a persistent eddy, appeared to be lost forever. Effectual—The word effectual means that the desired result has been achieved through that action. Example sentence: I have found that asking for help is far more effectual than simply waiting for someone to offer. Efficacy—The efficacy of something is how effective that thing is. Example sentence: The efficacy of the treatment came into question when the wound became infected instead of healing. Embellish—To embellish is to add details or flair to something—either verbally or physically. Example sentence: The seamstress told embellished tales of her youth while embellishing the wedding dress with thousands of tiny pearl beads. Emit—Emit means to give off. Example sentence: After having been sprayed by a skunk, the puppy emitted a horrid smell for several days to come. Empathize—When you empathize with someone, you feel what they’re feeling. You might empathize with a friend who had a terrible grade on a test, or with a family who needs some help getting enough food for a holiday meal. Example sentence: The storm damage to the home caused an outpouring of support from their neighbors, who empathized with the now-struggling family. Endearing—When people are endearing, they create warm feelings toward themselves. A person may have an endearing smile that makes you like them and feel kindly toward them. Example sentence: When I joined my new school, I was seated next to a small girl with pigtails. She had the most endearing personality and we were soon great friends. Endeavor—To endeavor is to try something. It can also be used as a noun, meaning “a try.” Example sentence: Once the rain stops, we will endeavor to get the garden planted. Endow—To endow is to give. Quite often, this term is used to describe massive donations given to charities upon the death of a wealthy person. It can also talk about rights given to people just because of their birth or citizenship. Example sentence: (From the Declaration of Independence) “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” Enterprise—When you set out to do something, the process of doing it is an enterprise. This word often refers to big or difficult tasks. Think about the starship Enterprise from Star Trek—it has a very difficult mission: “To explore strange new worlds. To seek out new life and new civilizations. To boldly go where no man has gone before.” Example sentence: The process of building and moving to a whole new school in just a year was quite a difficult enterprise; however, the school board was committed to it as it was seen as the best option for the students’ education. Entice—To entice someone is to convince them to do something through the promise of reward (as opposed to coerce, which is through promise of harm). A cat can be enticed to come out from under the bed with a treat. Example sentence: When the workers dragged their feet getting a project done, the manager enticed them to finish by promising an extra vacation day to whomever completed their portion first. Entrenched—To be entrenched means to be dug in, to refuse to move, especially when it comes to thoughts and ideas. Think about how armies use trenches. They dig trenches, and then they can’t easily move from the trenches without risking harm. The word entrenched comes from that idea. Example sentence: Some people believe that debates are essentially useless since both parties often begin the debate already so entrenched in their ideas that they won’t even listen to the other debater. Ephemeral—Something ephemeral is very short-lived. It is fleeting and quickly gone. Example sentence: The rainbow—one of the most beautiful natural phenomena—is quite ephemeral and generally disappears within just a few short minutes. Evince—Evince is generally a verb meaning to show one’s feelings. Example sentence: The actions of the government as it tries and fails to help time and again evince anger and frustration. Expenditure—An expenditure is a spending of money or other resources. Example sentence: Buying all new china was an extravagant expenditure, but the noble felt it was necessary since he would be entertaining a duchess. Explanatory—When something is explanatory, it explains something. Example sentence: Quite often, students skip over explanatory examples and jump straight to the work; this is generally a mistake. Extensive—When something is extensive, it is widespread or far-reaching. You might also say it is thorough. Example sentence: Due to extensive cheating, the teacher shredded the tests and instead made each student meet with her for an oral examination of their knowledge. Feeble—To be feeble is to be weak. Example sentence: The feeble elderly couple often needed their neighbors’ help with the landscaping. Fetter—To fetter is to hold someone or something back from what they want to do or accomplish. Example sentence: While I love my parents, living under their rules often leaves me feeling fettered. Finite—Finite is the opposite of infinite. When something is finite, it has a definitive beginning and ending. Example sentence: The fact that the movie was finite saddened me—I wished it could go on and on forever. Fiscal—When people describe things as fiscal (like the fiscal year), they are talking about money and the economy. Example sentence: Because of excessive spending, the business was experiencing fiscal difficulties that threatened to bankrupt it. Florid—Generally describing a person’s face, this adjective means red or flushed. Example sentence: Having run the 5K in brutal heat, the athlete rested with his florid face cradled in his hands. Former—Former refers to the one before or in the past. The former president used to be the president, for example. If I give you two options and you choose the former, then you have chosen the first one that was given. Example sentence: I was shocked when the former mayor of my town was revealed to be in the middle of a scandal, which plunged the town into a fiscal crisis. Forum—A forum is a location or a meeting where people can talk about their thoughts, ideas, and opinions. Example sentence: The teacher rearranged the desks into a circle to facilitate discussion and turn the classroom into a forum on governmental improvements. Frantic—Frantic could also be expressed as desperate. When you are frantic about something, there is urgency to do all you can as you try to solve the problem. Example sentence: The dog wandered off during the picnic, triggering a frantic search by all the family members. Frequent—Frequent simply means often. When something happens frequently, it happens all the time. Example sentence: His frequent tardiness led to a Saturday detention. Fundamental—Fundamentals are basics. The fundamentals of reading would be learning the alphabet and phonics. The fundamentals of baseball are throwing, catching, and hitting. Example sentence: After many in the class failed the math test because they weren’t allowed to use calculators, the teacher made them return to fundamentals and practice adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing by hand. Germinate—To germinate something is to take something with potential and make it start to grow. Quite often this term is used with seeds. Example sentence: Part of the preschool’s mission statement is “to germinate active and curious minds.” Glom—To glom is to attach to something (often in a blob-like manner). Example sentence: Even despite continual cleaning, the boat was still covered in barnacles, which had glommed on to the hull. Glut—A glut is a ridiculous abundance of something. It’s having so much of something you don’t even know what to do with it. Example sentence: When the flood waters receded, there was a glut of carp left behind, flopping on the streets. The townspeople ate like kings that night and celebrated the day every year after with a Carp Festival. Grievance—A grievance is a complaint. Think of it as something you would grieve over—something that makes you sad. Example sentence: After the salesperson was seen taking a picture of my credit card, I felt it necessary to lodge a grievance against him as he was probably planning on stealing my identity. Ignominious—Something that is ignominious is undignified—it will likely cause the person experiencing it to feel shame or embarrassment. Example sentence: My brother pulled the chair out from under me, causing me to sprawl on the ground in a very ignominious position. Illegible—When something is illegible, it is unable to be read or understood. Example sentence: With the prevalence of typing these days, many people have illegible handwriting due to lack of practice. Immured—When someone is immured, they are held against their will in some way, often enclosed. Example sentence: The young man felt trapped in the relationship, immured by his desire not to hurt her feelings. Impel—To impel is to push or force someone to do something in some way. Example sentence: Impelled by the fear of loneliness, many people resort to blind dates to try to find a companion. Impugn—When someone impugns something, they challenge it as being wrong. Example sentence: When my friend’s excellent character was demonstrated, others could no longer impugn his motives. Incomprehensible—Something that is incomprehensible is unable to be comprehended or understood. Example sentence: The student’s illegible handwriting and incomprehensible train of thought resulted in a very low grade on the essay. Inconspicuous—This is the opposite of “conspicuous”; it means that something cannot easily be seen. Example sentence: The green camouflage made the soldier inconspicuous; he seemed to blend into the forest. Incontestable—Incontestable means unable to be contested. In other words, you can’t dispute it or go against it. Example sentence: The results of the election were incontestable; the candidate won by a landslide. Incorporate—To incorporate is to fully include something. For example, you might incorporate an explanation of climate change into a paper on Antarctica. Example sentence: The leader was harshly criticized when the press found out that he had failed to incorporate any women into the task force on family and children’s rights. Incredulous—When you’re incredulous of something, you don’t really believe it, or you have doubts about it. Example sentence: The child looked at her friend incredulously when she tried to convince her that the monster was, in fact, not real. Indifference—Indifference is that feeling of not feeling strongly about something one way or the other. You might feel indifference toward which teacher you get, or what you have for lunch, or any number of things. Example sentence: Indifference is a dangerous emotion as it can lead to people drifting through life and never taking any risks or making any big decisions. Indistinguishable—When two things are indistinguishable, they can’t be told apart from one another: There are no distinguishing features. Example sentence: Even though their mother could tell them apart, to everyone else the twins were indistinguishable. Induce—If you induce something, you cause it to happen. Example sentence: Vigorous exercise typically induces sweating. Inefficacious—This just means not having the desired effect. Example sentence: Studying can be inefficacious if you don’t make sure to get rid of all distractions before beginning. Inexorable—Inexorable is kind of like inevitable. It can’t be avoided or stopped—it will occur no matter what. Example sentence: The clock had been ticking constantly for the entire winter, counting out the inexorable passage of time. Innocuous—If something is innocuous, it is harmless. Example sentence: The medicinal placebo was totally innocuous—the patient did not need to be concerned about any side effects. Innumerable—When something is innumerable, it is unable to be counted. You’ll notice num hidden away—this is also the root of the word number. Example sentence: The grains of sand on the beach are truly innumerable. Institution—An institution is an organization that has been created to fulfill a purpose (generally for the greater good). For example, governments, churches, and schools can all be examples of institutions. Generally, institutions are thought of as permanent or nearly impossible to get rid of. Example sentence: Between churches, schools, and my mom’s job as our small-town mayor, I often feel like I grew up in institutions. Insurrection—An insurrection is a revolt or an uprising. Example sentence: Though Catherine the Great is revered by Russians, the peasant insurrection during her time as ruler put a damper on her legacy. Integrate—To integrate two or more things is to mix them together. Example sentence: I don’t remember the exact date, but at some point in seventh grade, the girls’ lunch tables and the boys’ lunch tables started to integrate and nothing was ever the same again. Intercede—If you intercede in a situation, you intervene typically in a helpful way. Example sentence: The peer mediator interceded between the two teenagers who were having a conflict. Intermittent—Intermittent just means off and on at a set interval. Example sentence: The stoplight let cars proceed intermittently. Intuitive—When something is intuitive, it is easy to use and figure out without directions. You can go based on your gut feeling and probably get it right. Example sentence: While some people struggle to memorize math facts, other people find numbers to be intuitive and breeze through their classes. Inherent—When something is inherent, it wasn’t learned or created; it is naturally occurring. For example, some animals have an inherent fear of predators. You may have an inherent love of the color green or hatred of the smell of tomatoes. Example sentence: As hard as they tried, my neighbors could not train their dog out of his inherent desire to dig holes. Insolent—You might well get in trouble for acting insolent at school. Such behavior shows a general bad attitude, lack of respect, and overall grumpiness. Example sentence: “Wouldn’t you like to know,” came the insolent reply from the teen when her father asked her why she had returned so late the night before. Intolerable—When something is intolerable, you simply can’t put up with (or tolerate) it. Example sentence: “Your behavior is intolerable,” her father responded before he grounded her. Invasive—Think of the word invade. When something is invasive, it invades something or goes somewhere it isn’t wanted. Example sentence: Family get-togethers are always difficult since my great aunt likes to gossip; she goes around asking everyone highly invasive questions. Inversion—To invert something is to turn it upside down. An inversion is the noun form of that word and means the act of turning upside down. Example sentence: The scariest roller coaster in the park had the fastest speeds, the highest hills, and the most inversions. Labyrinth—Quite simply, a labyrinth is a maze. Example sentence: Moving from a small family firm to a giant corporation was a big change, and I often found myself lost in the labyrinth of cubicles. Laden—To be laden is to be weighed down with something physically. A shopping cart might be laden with groceries, for instance. Example sentence: The mailman dreaded the holiday season when his bag became quite cumbersome to carry, laden as it was with packages full of presents. Latter—Latter is the opposite of former. Former is the first thing mentioned, latter is the second or last. Example sentence: I was given the option of either getting out of bed for school or getting grounded, and I foolishly choose the latter, which left me trapped at home over homecoming weekend. Liaison—This is often used to mean a close connection or relationship. It can also mean a person who facilitates understanding between parties. Example sentence: In the office, it was often my job to be a liaison between various parties. Magnitude—The magnitude of something is how big it is. Example sentence: My coworker seemed to have her head buried in the sand and didn’t realize the magnitude of losing our biggest client. Malice—Malice (mal at the beginning of the word means bad) is generally used to describe the feeling of one person wishing to do something harmful to another person. Example sentence: It was a long-standing rivalry, and the malice off the field led to overly aggressive behavior on the field, which resulted in the game being ended at halftime. Malign—To malign someone is to say terrible things about them. Example sentence: After he got a bad grade, he proceeded to malign the teacher to anyone who would listen. Manifest—This can mean a variety of things. As a noun, it is a complete list. As a verb, it means to make appear or to make clear. As an adjective, it means obvious or clear. Example sentence: The passenger manifest manifested to the detective the fact that the sought-after party was not on board the ship. Manipulate—To manipulate something or someone is to change them to your liking. You might manipulate your parent’s opinion on where to eat by casually mentioning pizza several times during the day. You might also manipulate clay into the shape of a vase. Example sentence: While many people believe that data don’t lie, in reality, data can be heavily manipulated to show just about whatever results are desired. Mantra—A mantra is something that people repeat over and over to themselves in the hopes that it becomes true or as a means toward achieving a goal. Example sentence: In the early days of January, people who appear to be just going about life are silently repeating their mantras in the hopes of fulfilling their New Years’ resolutions. Marginalize—This word refers to the action of making something less, often when it shouldn’t be. A person’s feelings may be marginalized or brushed away as not important. Example sentence: The young girl always felt marginalized when her successful older siblings were around. Meander—To meander is to wander in a non-straight line and with little or no haste or purpose. Example sentence: If I get bored this afternoon, I may meander over to the park to see if anything is going on. Meddle—To meddle is to tamper with something, often human situations or emotions. Example sentence: When my two best friends broke up, I tried to help them fix their relationship, but I only ended up making it worse. As my mom often says, “Meddling does no one any good.” Metastasize—When something metastasizes, it is spreading. Example sentence: Luckily, the disease had been found before it metastasized, and so it appeared as if recovery were very likely. Mire—To mire is to stick something down. When someone or something is mired, it can’t be freed, but is stuck in a sticky situation either figuratively or literally. Example sentence: I always cry during my favorite childhood book when the horse becomes mired in a bog and must be abandoned so that the quest can be completed. Misanthropic—If you meet a misanthrope, try to steer clear. They do not like humanity and think the worst of people. Example sentence: My neighbor is quite misanthropic; when I brought him a cake to welcome him to the neighborhood, he accused me of trying to poison him. Mitigate—To mitigate is to make something less severe. Example sentence: My umbrella mitigated the effects of the pouring rain. Monotony—Monotony is the same thing over and over again. Example sentence: As the semester progressed, I felt trapped in a scholastic monotony with nothing ever changing, each day exactly the same as the last. Motivation—Motivation is what drives you. It’s the feeling inside that makes you start that project, run that extra mile, or take the extra shift. Example sentence: Since motivation was low, the teacher promised extra credit to the first student who turned in an “A”-worthy project. Mundane—Something that is mundane is boring and normal. It’s a regular everyday occurrence. Example sentence: Until the fire alarms went off, it had just been a mundane Monday morning. Mutable—Think about the math term permutation. A permutation has to do with all the different ways a set of numbers can be changed and rearranged into different orders. That root word mut generally has to do with change. Mutable describes something that is easy to or likely to change. Other words you might know with this root include mutate and commute. Example sentence: The speaker was worried he would be unable to change the audience’s minds, but it turned out they were much more mutable than he had anticipated. Mystify—To mystify just means to confuse. Think about the word mystery with the same root. A mystery is confusing—mystifying someone confuses them. Example sentence: The scientists were mystified at first as to the meaning of the data that they had collected. Nebulous—Like a nebula found in outer space, something that is nebulous lacks a definite form or limits. Example sentence: We had only a nebulous concept of what we wanted to do for a vacation; we knew we wanted to have fun, but we were not sure where to go. Net—In describing pay, net pay is what is left after all taxes and fees are removed. In scientific terms, it could be what is left after all other considerations are removed. For example, when you weigh something and you remove the weight of the container, you are left with the net weight of what is in the container. Example sentence: The charity race raised a net total of $3,500 after the administrative expenses and permit fees were paid out. Nominal—To be nominal is to exist in name only; it doesn’t represent things as they actually are. Example sentence: While he was the nominal boss of the company, the silent partners actually ran things. Notional—Something notional only exists as an idea, not in reality. Example sentence: The dictator ordered the notional tank regiments to attack; however, he did not understand that the regiments had already been destroyed. Nuance—A nuance is a subtle difference in the meaning or expression of something. Example sentence: While the applicants responded to the question in a similar way, the nuances in their reactions helped the manager make a decision as to who would be a better fit for the job. Null—Null means nothing; it’s just another way of saying zero. Example sentence: When the parties pass away, the contract becomes null and void. Obliterate—To obliterate something is to completely and utterly destroy it beyond recognition. Example sentence: The meteor obliterated the forest into which it crashed, scattering debris all over the countryside. Obstinate—Obstinate is just the same as stubborn. It means refusing to give up even when wrong or faced with insurmountable forces against you. Example sentence: Despite pleading, cajoling, and coercing, the young child obstinately refused to get in the bathtub. Onerous—When something is onerous it is difficult to do, usually taking a lot of unpleasant work to complete. Example sentence: As a veterinarian, I often have the onerous task of discussing expensive bills with clients. Orthodox—To be orthodox is to stick to traditions and customs. Example sentence: While my history teacher is quite orthodox, sticking to time-tested lesson plans, my art teacher is far more experimental in his approach. Oscillate—To oscillate is to move back and forth in a predictable pattern at a set speed. The pendulum in a grandfather clock is a classic example of oscillation. Example sentence: The oscillation of the carnival ride made me sick to my stomach. Panacea—A panacea is a fix-all solution. Example sentence: While most people view love as a panacea, I know from experience that it can’t solve all problems. Paradox—A paradox is something that contradicts itself or sets up an impossible train of thought that never ends but always circles back on itself. Example sentence: One of the most well-known paradoxes is the statement, “This statement is false.” Parasitic—Something that is parasitic attaches to something else and feeds off of it without giving anything back. This might be used to describe an actual parasite (like a tapeworm) or a person like the friend who always borrows money, but never returns it. Example sentence: When one person would get wise to her parasitic ways, she would merely find someone else to leach the homework off of for the next few weeks. Parity—Parity is equalness or being equal. It is the opposite of disparity, which is inequality. Example sentence: Despite the parent’s best efforts at parity, one of the children always felt that they had received less attention. Partake—To partake is the same as to participate. It is often used with food (to partake in a meal is to eat it) but can also be used with any given activity. Example sentence: Even though I always insist I’m not hungry, my grandmother won’t let me leave her home without partaking in at least one meal or snack with her and my grandfather. Paternal—To be paternal is to act in a fatherly way. Paternal can also be used to describe things relating to fathers. Example sentence: Even though I barely knew him, the old man acted in quite a paternal way to me and insisted on seeing me home safely when I became lost. Permeate—To permeate is to soak through something, invading and saturating every part of it and leaving nothing untouched. Water permeates things in a flood, and smells permeate rooms and homes. Example sentence: The smell of burned food permeated the kitchen as the family rushed to save their dinner. Permutation—Remember the word mutable from above? Permutation has that same mut syllable indicating it’s about change. Permutation has to do with all the different ways a set of items can be arranged in different orders. In how many ways can the order be changed? Example sentence: In math class, the teacher explained permutations to us by making ten students line up in as many different ways as possible; the possibilities seemed endless. Perpetual—Something that is perpetual is never-ending. Example sentence: Life in the Arctic Circle is very difficult in the winter when whole communities are plunged into perpetual darkness for months on end. Perspective—Your perspective is how you see things both literally (different seats in a theater have different perspectives of the stage) and figuratively (you and your parent may have different perspectives on your staying up until 3 A.M.). Example sentence: Since he was the only young person in the office, he was often called into meetings to give a different perspective on various issues. Perturb—To perturb is to disturb, but in an emotional way. A scary book or a strange person may perturb. Example sentence: The teacher was quite perturbed by the actions of the small child, which were very out of character for a four-year-old. Pervading—Pervading and pervade are often used as synonyms for permeate. Something (especially a smell) can be pervading when it permeates an area where it is not welcome. Example sentence: The pervading smell was quite offensive to the students, who quickly jumped to open the windows. Phenomena—Phenomena is the plural of the word phenomenon. A phenomenon is something that is known to exist or occur, the cause of which is often not clear. Planes going down in the Bermuda triangle is a well-known phenomenon. Example sentence: A great crowd gathered to watch the strange phenomenon. Pittance—A pittance is a pitiably small amount: not really enough to do anything with. Example sentence: With her children and husband all gone, the widow somehow managed to live off the pittance given to her by neighborhood charities. Plasticity—The plasticity of something is its ability to change and be molded. Example sentence: The best time to learn a foreign language is when you’re young; that’s when you still have the most brain plasticity. Plenipotentiary—A plenipotentiary is a person who has been given the authority to act on behalf of their country in foreign countries. Diplomats often act in this role, though true plenipotentiary power is rare. Example sentence: During negotiations with France, Benjamin Franklin acted as a plenipotentiary for the United States. Posterity—Posterity is the future of humankind: all of the people who will come in the future. Example sentence: The collection of American historical artifacts at the museum is being carefully preserved for posterity. Postulate—To postulate is to guess or to present an idea that is not proven. A TV personality may postulate that a certain person will be elected. Example sentence: “Maybe there is a traffic jam,” she postulated as she waited for her date who was very late. Potent—Potent means very strong. Not physically, but of a high concentration. A smell or taste, for example, may be very potent. Example sentence: As the potent fumes wafted through the laboratory, the alarms sounded to warn all the scientists to evacuate quickly. Prattle—To prattle is to talk on and on while saying little of value. Example sentence: Faced with an abundance of awkward silences, the young lady prattled endlessly to avoid the quiet. Preclude—To preclude something is to make it not possible for it to happen. Example sentence: The gymnast’s poor score on the first event precluded his moving on to the next round of the competition. Predecessor—The predecessor to something or someone is what came before. This word is often used to describe a person who held an office or job prior to the current office or job holder. Example sentence: “My predecessor may have allowed talking in class, but I do not,” the new teacher informed her students. Preposterous—Something that is preposterous is so ridiculous as to be laughable. Example sentence: The elderly man laughed and said “don’t be preposterous,” when his grandson suggested that he try the mechanical bull at the fair. Pristine—Something that is pristine is untouched and perfect. It is completely unmarred in any way. Example sentence: One of my favorite sights is a field of pristine snow, untrampled by any animals or humans. Proliferate—To proliferate is to grow, spread, and reproduce, often at a high rate of speed. Rumors tend to proliferate within schools, as do germs. Example sentence: The weeds proliferated throughout the summer, and he quickly realized that having a pristine garden was impossible. Promulgate—To promulgate an idea is to spread it around. There are a lot of programs, for example, that promulgate anti-bullying messages to students. Example sentence: The man was asked to leave the gathering when he was heard to be promulgating his latest get-rich-quick scheme. Province—A province is a geographical area under a government. Many countries have a province system instead of having states. Example sentence: As a Canadian, I often simply respond with my province when Americans ask what state I’m from. Proxy—A proxy is a substitute. A person standing in for another person can generally be called a proxy. In some situations, formal events like voting, getting married, and signing contracts can be done by proxy. Example sentence: Since the CEO was incredibly busy that day, he had his assistant attend the board meeting to vote as his proxy. Psychological—Things that are psychological have to do with the inner workings of our minds, which affect our feelings, emotions, and actions. Example sentence: The doctor, having run out of tests to perform, came to the conclusion that the symptoms must have psychological causes. Quarrel—To quarrel is to argue with someone. A quarrel is an argument. Example sentence: The young nanny was constantly begging the children not to quarrel. Rapacious—Someone who is rapacious is unable to be satisfied. They are very greedy and always looking to gain more of what they want. Example sentence: The rapacious vultures searched for food all over the meadow. Recalcitrant—A recalcitrant person is rebellious and uncooperative. Example sentence: The teacher kept issuing detentions to the recalcitrant student, hoping they would finally start acting better in class. Receptive—A person who is receptive is open to receiving things, quite often ideas. Example sentence: While the student was nervous about asking to take the test again, the teacher was quite receptive to the idea. Reciprocate—Those who reciprocate give back in return. Example sentence: When my friend took me out for dinner, I decided to reciprocate his gesture by buying us dinner the next time we met. Rectify—When one rectifies something, they make it right. Example sentence: An amendment can be used to rectify an error in the Constitution. Redress—Don’t get tricked into thinking this word means to get dressed again. Instead, it means to fix or make a situation right where someone has been wronged. Example sentence: The man who had been wrongfully imprisoned sought redress for his grievances. Reluctant—To be reluctant is to act on the feeling of not wanting to do something. If you end up doing the thing, you do it in a manner that shows that you don’t want to be doing it. Example sentence: The teacher was reluctant to give up his Saturday to grade papers, but the students had already waited a week, so he sat down with his red pen and got started. Remonstrate—To remonstrate is to object to something strongly or to speak out against something strongly. Example sentence: The principal remonstrated the student’s misbehavior. Repression—Repression is the act of holding something down or back, especially ideas and movements. Example sentence: The governmental repression of revolutionary societies became stronger each week. Reverence—Reverence means showing great respect or a deep appreciation for something. Example sentence: When entering the throne room, it is always necessary to show reverence for the king by bowing before him and kissing his ring. Rhetoric—Rhetoric is the way in which people speak and argue to convey their points. Different people may have different styles of rhetoric: They may ask questions, they may use persuasive language, they may yell, they may trick. All of those are types of rhetoric. Example sentence: The country quickly got tired of the candidates’ loud rhetorical blustering. Sanction—Sanction is a very interesting word as it has seemingly opposite meanings. Make sure you pay very close attention to the context. Sometimes sanction refers to officially approving or allowing something to happen. The school might sanction a dance, meaning it’s officially approved by the administration. However, sanctions can also be negative—a penalty for something done that is bad. Usually the context of negative sanctions is legal; when the word is used in this manner, it often refers to one country placing sanctions on another country for things like human rights violations. Example sentence: “Just know that I do not sanction this event,” said the major when the town council voted to have the festival against her wishes. Sanguine—A sanguine person will have a positive and optimistic disposition. Example sentence: The investor cheered the company’s latest results; she felt very sanguine about the company’s future performance. Scenario—A scenario is the setup for a work of fiction, a book, movie, or play. It can also be any imagined situation that people put themselves in, such as discussing what could happen in the future or things that should have happened in the past. Example sentence: My English teacher proposed an interesting scenario— what books would you take with you if you were stuck on a deserted island? Scuttling—Scuttling is a very specific type of movement. It’s moving very quickly with tiny (often not smooth) steps. Think about how crabs may run along a beach—they’re almost always scuttling. Example sentence: The pickpocket checked over his shoulder one more time before scuttling down an alley with his ill-gotten gains. Seamless—Think of a shirt without seams—it’s completely smooth and has no breaks in the fabric. When something is seamless, it is very smooth. This word is often used as a synonym for flawless. Example sentence: The director was thrilled when the whole production came together seamlessly. Sentiment—A sentiment is how you feel or what you say about something that has occurred. Example sentence: While he expressed nice sentiments about being sorry, she couldn’t bring herself to forgive his mistakes. Sentinel—A sentinel is a soldier whose job it is to keep watch over something. Example sentence: The sentinel rushed to the general with news of invaders. Shingled—Something described as shingled would have the same layered look as the shingles on a roof. Example sentence: As odd as it looked, shingled hair was quite popular in the early 2000s. Skeptic—A skeptic is someone who is skeptical, or doubtful, of something. Example sentence: Jack continued to power forward with his extravagant plans, despite the loud voices of his skeptics. Squalid—When described as squalid, things are run down, dirty, and often infested with vermin. This is often the result of war or poverty. Example sentence: Despite her best efforts at fixing and cleaning, the apartment remained at best squalid and at worst unlivable. Squelch—Squelch is an onomatopoeia; the word means the sound it makes. Squelch is the sound that might be made if you tried to pull your foot out of thick mud or if you stepped on a slug. Example sentence: With soaking wet socks and shoes, every step squelched. Stagnate—To stagnate is to stop moving forward. This is generally not physical movement. Example sentence: The project had stagnated, which caused great concern with the management team. Stewardship—A steward is someone who takes care of something. Stewardship, then, is the noun form of the act of taking care of something. Example sentence: As the result of careful stewardship, the manor survived the 50 years of being boarded up with only a bit of dust to tell of the long emptiness. Stupefied—To be stupefied is to be made temporarily stupid. This generally happens if something really sudden or unexpected occurs. Example sentence: After witnessing the last-minute heartbreaking loss, many fans left the stadium with stupefied looks on their faces. Subjugate—To subjugate a person or group of people is to put them under your total control. This is especially applicable in war-time situations when entire populations are conquered and subjugated. Example sentence: The hero rode gallantly into town, determined to free the subjugated people. Subordinate—Someone who is subordinate is lower in status, usually in a workplace. A worker is subordinate to the boss. Example sentence: The hallmark of a good manager is when they treat their subordinates with care, kindness, and fairness. Subsequent—Something that is subsequent comes after something else. For example, my birthday is subsequent to that of my older sibling. Example sentence: After getting a D on the midterm, he resolved to study harder for any subsequent tests. Substantial—When something is substantial, it is not insignificant, but almost the opposite. It is of an important size or amount. Example sentence: The restaurant lost a substantial amount of money when it changed management. Sullen—To be sullen is to be grumpy and unenthusiastic. It is a type of bad mood wherein you do things only under protest. You might think of it as being related to sulking. Example sentence: The sullen young man was often reprimanded by his mother for his bad attitude. Superfluous—If something is superfluous, it is unnecessary, giving more than is required. Example sentence: Completing extra credit assignments is likely superfluous if a student already has a 100%. Supplemental—Something that is supplemental adds something unnecessary, but helpful, to something else. There may be supplemental information at the end of a chapter. A family may pay for a vacation with supplemental income from a part-time job. Example sentence: The supplemental assistance from neighbors helped the family through tough times. Sustenance—Sustenance is what sustains a person. Generally, this is used as a fancy word for food. Example sentence: After having been shipwrecked for months, the sailors craved sustenance other than dried fish and leaves. Synthetic—Something that is synthetic is made artificially, not naturally. Example sentence: Clothing made from synthetic material may last longer, but it also tends to breathe less, causing sweat, smells, and acne. Tactile—Something that is tactile has to do with the sense of touch. A tactile sensation, for example, is a sensation of being touched in some way. Example sentence: When I was young, I had a tactile disorder whereby the feeling of grass and other things against my skin caused me great distress. Tangible—Something that is tangible can be seen and touched (as compared to the opposite intangible). Example sentence: The tangible benefit of saving for retirement is obviously the money; the intangible benefit is peace of mind. Tedious—Something that is tedious is repetitive and boring. It takes a long time and doesn’t engage the mind. Example sentence: The tedious task of hand stitching clothing is thankfully no longer necessary due to the advent of the sewing machine. Tenuous—To be tenuous is to be weak or flimsy. This could apply to both physical or nonphysical things. Example sentence: My understanding of the material was tenuous—I had not studied the book much at all. Tout—To tout is to aggressively try to sell something, to sing its praises to get someone to buy it. Example sentence: I left quickly when I discovered the so-called party was just an excuse for the hostess to tout her overpriced essential oils. Traipsing—When one is traipsing, they are coming and going or moving in a carefree manner. Example sentence: He finally had to put a stop to the children traipsing in and out of the house with their shoes covered in mud. Transaction—When something is a transaction, it has something to do with the purchase or exchange of goods or services. Example sentence: The person she thought was her friend was really just interested in a transactional relationship. Tributary—A tributary is a stream or river upstream that feeds into a bigger river. Example sentence: The Ohio River, while large, is just a tributary of the mighty Mississippi River. Ubiquitous—When something is ubiquitous, it is found everywhere. It is common. Example sentence: The flags were ubiquitous in the highly patriotic town. Unassuming—When something or someone is unassuming, they are unthreatening and down to earth. Example sentence: Everyone liked the high school principal. His unassuming nature made him easy to work with. Unrequited—When feelings are unrequited, they are not returned in kind. This word is often used to describe one-sided love. Example sentence: Driven mad by unrequited love, the story’s heroine wandered the moors for the rest of her life and haunted her beloved after her death. Unseemly—Something that is unseemly might otherwise be described as inappropriate for the situation. Example sentence: While appropriate for milking cows, overalls are an unseemly choice for a fine French restaurant. Unstinting—Something that is unstinting is given without pause or second thought. Example sentence: My favorite teacher gave me unstinting support in my quest for academic excellence. Unveil—To unveil is to reveal. Think of a bride walking down the aisle wearing her veil and then removing her veil to reveal her face to the groom. Example sentence: The excitement was noticeable as the crowd waited for the mayor to unveil the new city monument. Usurp—To usurp is to overthrow. This word is often used to discuss overthrowing governments and other authorities. Example sentence: It is the duty of several agencies to find and arrest anyone who intends to usurp the government. Validate—To validate something is to say that it is valid, true, or accurate. Quite often, businesses will validate parking. That is, they’ll stamp the parking ticket to indicate that the person who parked had a true reason to be there. Example sentence: Though the woman claimed that she owned the house, her words needed to be validated by calling the local public records office. Vantage—Vantage is a spot with a good view to see what needs to be seen. Example sentence: From their vantage point on the second story, they could see the whole parade while staying nice and warm. Verifiable—Something that is verifiable is able to be verified, or proven correct. Facts are generally verifiable while opinions are not. Example sentence: His alibi was not verifiable and so he was left on the list of suspects. Veritable—This word is used to emphasize that something is in fact real. Example sentence: There was a veritable surge in interest in the musician’s album when she announced her upcoming concert tour. Vernacular—The vernacular is the common or slang terms that people in a given community use. Example sentence: While parents might think it’s rude or confusing, most students have vernacular terms that they and their friends use frequently. Versatile—Something that is versatile can be used in many different ways. Example sentence: Anytime you go camping you should take a good length of cording. It’s a versatile tool that can help in many dangerous situations. Vestigial—Something that is vestigial is a small left-behind part of something much bigger. Example sentence: The one standing hut was the vestigial remains of a once-mighty empire. Vindicate—When someone is vindicated, they are cleared of blame or suspicion or shown to be correct. Example sentence: The treasure hunter was vindicated when he found the treasure chest exactly where he predicted it would be. Virtuous—Something that is virtuous has virtue, or a high sense of morality. Example sentence: The virtuous young people refused to take part in the cheating ring that was quickly growing at their school. Mayside—The wayside is exactly what it sounds like, the side of the road. This term is also often used in a figurative sense. Example sentence: It is often a sad fact of life that when someone begins dating, their friends are pushed to the wayside. Yearning—Yearning is to want something with all your heart, to crave it at the expense of all else. Example sentence: Although the young man liked his hometown, he felt a sense of yearning for international travel.

Conditional Sentences Rules Basic Advanced Worksheets Beginner (1) Elementary (2) (PECE) Pre-intermediate (3) (JSC) Intermediate (4) (SSC) Upper-intermediate (5( (HSC) Advanced (6)(University) Conditional Exercise 4.1 Use (first / second / third conditionals) 1. (First conditional) If we (not / work) harder, we (not pass) the exam. 2. (Third conditional) If the students (not be) late for the exam, they (pass). 3. (Third conditional) If the weather (not be) so cold, we (go) to the beach. 4. (Second conditional) If she (have) her laptop with her, she (email) me. 5. (First conditional) If she (not go) to the meeting, I (not go) either. 6. (Third conditional) If the baby (sleep) better last night, I (not be) so tired. 7. (First conditional) If the teacher (give) us lots of homework this weekend, I (not be) happy. 8. (Second conditional) If Lucy _ (have) enough time, she (travel) more. 9. (First conditional) If the children (not eat) soon, they (be) grumpy. 10. (First conditional) If I (not go) to bed soon, I (be) tired in the morning. 11. (Second conditional) If I (want) a new car, I (buy) one. 12. (Second conditional) If José (not speak) good French, he (not move) to Paris. 13. (First conditional) If John (drink) too much coffee, he (get) ill. 14. (Third conditional) If we (tidy) our flat, we (not lose) our keys. 15. (Third conditional) If Luke (not send) flowers to his mother, she (not be) happy. 16. (Second conditional) If the children (be) in bed, I (be able to) have a bath. 17. (Second conditional) If you (not be) so stubborn, we (not have) so many arguments! 18. (Third conditional) If Julie (not go) to Sweden, she (go) to Germany. 19. (First conditional) If she (go) to the library, she (study) more. 20. (Third conditional) If we (not have) an argument, we (not be) late. 21. (Second conditional) If you (arrive) early, it (be) less stressful. 22. (Third conditional) If I _ (not go) to the party, I (not meet) Amanda. 23. (Second conditional) If Julie (like) chocolate, I (give) her some. 24. (Second conditional) If Luke (live) in the UK, I (see) him more often. 25. (Third conditional) If the children (not eat) all that chocolate, they (feel) sick. 26. (First conditional) If they (not / arrive) soon, we (be) late. 27. (Third conditional) If she (study) Mandarin, she (go) to Beijing. 28. (Second conditional) If we _ (not be) so tired, we (go) out. 29. (First conditional) If you (buy) the present, I (wrap) it up. 30. (First conditional) If Lucy (not quit) her job soon, she (go) crazy.

English for masters, English for MA examination MASTER'S Idea Builders Idea Builders Listening Reading writing Speaking Vocabulary Grammar Synonyms & Phraphrasing

english for honours examination, Hounours english HONOURS BA / BSS / BSc Honours (Non-Credit) 2nd Year/ Honours (Non-Credit)English Idea Builders Idea Builders Listening Reading writing Speaking Vocabulary Grammar Synonyms & Phraphrasing English Syllabus & Book List BA Hons (1st Year) Course National University Bangladesh (http://www.nu.edu.bd ). Detailed Syllabus Paper Code : 211101 Marks : 100 Credits : 4 Class Hours : 60 Paper Title :English Reading Skills The Paper seeks to develop student’ reading skills and covers the following sub-skills: a) Guessing word meanings by using knowledge of word form (class), word function, word structure and formation and most importantly, contextual clues. b) Understanding ornamental expressions c) Tackling sentence meaning, d) Surveying text organization, e) Reading for specific information (skimming) f) Reading for general comprehension/gist (scanning), g) Summarizing, h) Predicting , i) Interpreting and j) Recognizing, author’s position, tone and attitude The reading texts will be chosen from different types of writing like descriptive, narrative, expository, argumentative, journalistic and academic text e.g. History, Philosophy etc. Recommended books: Williams. E. 1984 Reading in the Language Classroom. Macmillan Wallace.1992. Reading, OUP Barr. P. Clegg, J. and Wallace, C. 1981 Advance Reading Skills Longman Walter, Catherine. 1988. Class Readers, OUP Paper Code : 211103 Marks : 100 Credits : 4 Class Hours : 60 Paper Title : English Writing Skills a. Paragraphs using a variety of techniques such as examples, listing, cause and effect, comparison-contrast among others, b. Essay: Descriptive, Narrative, Expository and Argumentative, c. Report writing: Newspaper Report, Survey Report, Business Report d. Letter: Formal / Informal/ Business and e. Notice, Memo, Notes, Press Release, Minutes. Paper Code : 211105 Marks : 100 Credits : 4 Class Hours : 60 Paper Title : Introduction to Poetry W. Shakespeare “ Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” Milton “On His Blindness” John Donne “The Good-Morrow” R. Herrick “To Daffodils” Thomas Gray “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” W. Wordsworth “I wandered Lonely as a Cloud” P.B. Shelley “Ode to the West Wind” John Keats “To Autumn” A. Tennyson “Ulysses” R. Browning “Patriot” Elizabeth B. Br“How do I love thee” W. Whitman “Crossing Brooklyn Ferry” Emily Dickenson “Because I Could not stop for Death” W.B. Yeats “A Prayer for My Daughter” R. Frost “Home Burial” D.H Lawrence “The Piano” Dylan Thomas “Fern Hill” Ted Hughes “Pike” R. Tagore “ Where the mind is without fear” (Gitanjali-35) Kaiser Huq “Learning Grief” Literary Terms: Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Metonymy, Symbol, Irony, Climax, Anticlimax, Alliteration, Assonance, Hyperbole, Paradox, Onomatopoeia, Bathos, Allusion, Conceit, Pun, Imagery, Elegy, Sonnet, Lyric, Dramatic Monologue, Ode, Ballad, Fable, Satire, Lampoon Prosody Accent, Foot/ Measure, Blank Verse, Rhyme, Tercet , Couplet, Heroic Couplet, Scansion of verse and others. Paper Code : 211107 Marks : 100 Credits : 4 Class Hours : 60 Paper Title : Introduction to Prose: Fiction and Non- Fiction: F. Bacon “Of Studies” A. Lincoln “Gettysburg Address” R. Tagore “Letter to Lord Chelmsford Rejecting Knighthood” G. Orwell “Shooting an Elephant” Martin Luther King “I have a dream” N. Mandela “Long Walk to Freedom” (Part Eleven: Freedom: Chapter 115) Fiction S. Maugham “The Luncheon” O Henry “The Gift of the Magi” James Joyce “Araby” K. Mansfield “The Garden Party” E. Hemmingway “A Cat in the Rain” Anita Desai “Games at Twilight” Novel G. Eliot Silas Marner Paper Code 212009 Marks : 100 Credits : 4 Class Hours : 60 Paper Title Introducing Sociology Exam Duration : 4 Hours 1. Definition, Nature & Scope of Sociology, relationship with other social sciences. Development of Sociology: Contributions of Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber 2. Culture, Beliefs & Values: Norms, sanctions, symbols, language, subculture, counterculture, hegemony & resistance 3. Globalization, Culture and Society: Globalization and its different dimensions, Cultural globalization, global culture and social change 4. Urbanization and Social Formation: Definition of urbanization and urbanism, Process of urbanization in developing societies and social formation, over urbanization, growth of slum & poverty in mega cities 5. Gender and Society: DisPaper of WID, WAD and GAD, Why gender is important in the disPaper of development, Gender inequality & women’s subjugation in developing societies. 6. Environmental Problems, Natural Disasters and Social Crisis: Climate change and its impact on society, Natural disaster, social crisis and vulnerabilities, Climate change, deforestation and mal-development. 7. Social Inequality: Dimensions of social inequality: Class, gender, age, minority group (religious and indigenous), economic vulnerability, Social inequalities in developed & developing countries. 8. Types of societies: Marxist view on classifying societies on the basis of type of control over economic resources and Lenski’s view on classifying societies by their main means of Subsistance. 9. Deviance & Social Control: Definition of deviance, theories of deviance. Crime & justice system, agencies of social control. 10. Health, Illness and Society: Nature & scope of the problem, Urbanizations, acute, chronic & life style diseases, Social, environmental & behavioural factors affecting health, Communicable & behavioural diseases: STD, HIV/AIDS, TB, Hep-B etc Reference: Giddens Sociology Tony Bilton et al Introductory Sociology Paper Code 212111 Marks : 100 Credits : 4 Class Hours : 60 Paper Title Introduction to Social Work Exam Duration : 4 Hours 1. Social Work: Meaning, Characteristics, Scope and Importance Relationship of Social Work with other Sciences- Sociology, Economics, Psychology and Political Science. 2. Evolution: Evolution of Social Work in UK, USA, India and Bangladesh. 3. Social Reformers and their Movements in Pre-partition India and Bangladesh: Raja Rammohan Ray, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, A.K Fazlul Haque, Sir Syad Ahmed, Begum Rokeya. 4. Social Legislations Related to Social Security, Women Welfare, Child Welfare. 5. Profession and Social Work: Meaning and Characteristics of Profession, Social Work as profession, Philosophical, Religions and Ethical Basis of Social Work. 6. Industrial Revolution: Meaning, Impact on Society, Industrialization, Urbanization, Welfare State. 7. Social Problems and Social Services in Bangladesh. 8. Methods of Social Work: Basic and Auxiliary Methods and their Basic Issues such as Meaning, Elements, Principles and Area of Use. Importance of Social Work Methods in Bangladesh. Books Recommended: 1. Barker, Robert L. :Social Work Dictionary, 3rd ed. NASW, New York, 1995. 2. Coulshed, Veronica Social Work Practice: An Introduction 2nd ed. London. Macmillan, 1991. 3. Friedlander, Walter A. : Introduction to Social Welfare. Prentice Hall, 2nd ed. New Delhi-1967. 4. Khalid, M. : Welfare State, Karachi, Royal Book, 1968 5. Morales, A. And Shaefor, B. Social Work – A Profession of many faces, 4th ed. Allyan and Bacan, Boston, 1986. Paper Code 211909 Marks : 100 Credits : 4 Class Hours : 60 Paper Title Introduction to Political Theory Exam Duration : 4 Hours Political Science : Meaning, Nature, Scope, Methods, Relations to other Social Sciences, Importance to Study Political Science. State : Definition, Elements, State and Government, State and Individual, State and Society, Theories of the origin of the state. Fundamental concepts : Sovereignty, Law, Liberty, Equality, Rights and Duties, Nation, Nationalism, Internationalism. Concepts of Political Sociology : Political culture, elite theory, Max Weber and Bureaucracy Political Thinkers : Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau. Books Recommended : 1. R.G. Gettell : Political Science 2. J. W. Garner : Political Science and Government 3. R. M. MacIver : The Modern State 4. G.H. Sabine : A History of Political Theory 5. William Ebenstein : Great Political Thinkers-Plato to the Present 6. H.G. Laski : A Grammar of Politics. Paper Code 211501 Marks: 100 Credits: 4 Class Hours: 60 Paper Title: History of Emergence of Independent Bangladesh History of the Emergence of Independent Bangladesh Introduction: Scope and description of the emergence of Independent Bangladesh. Writing on this topic. 1. Description of the country and its people. a. Geographical features and their influence. b. Ethnic composition. c. Language. d. Cultural syncretism and religious tolerance. e. Distinctive identity of Bangladesh in the context of undivided Bangladesh. 2. Proposal for undivided sovereign Bengal and the partition of the Sub Continent, 1947. a. Rise of communalism under the colonial rule, Lahore Resolution 1940. b. The proposal of Suhrawardi and Sarat Bose for undivided Bengal : consequences c. The creation of Pakistan 1947 . 3. Pakistan: Structure of the state and disparity. a. Central and provincial structure. b. Influence of Military and Civil bureaucracy. C . Economic , social and cultural disparity 4. Language Movement and quest for Bengali identity a. Misrule by Muslim League and Struggle for democratic politics . b. The Language Movement: context and phases . c. United front of Haque – Vasani – Suhrawardi: election of 1954, consequences. 3. Pakistan: Structure of the state and disparity. a. Central and provincial structure. b. Influence of Military and Civil bureaucracy. C . Economic , social and cultural disparity 4. Language Movement and quest for Bengali identity a. Misrule by Muslim League and Struggle for democratic politics . b. The Language Movement: context and phases . c. United front of Haque – Vasani – Suhrawardi: election of 1954, consequences. 7. The mass- upsurge of 1969 and 11 point movement: background,programme and significance. 8. Election of 1970 and the Declaration of Independence by Bangobondhu a. Election result and centres refusal to comply b. The non co-operation movement, the 7th March , Address , Operation Searchlight c. Declaration of Independence by Bangobondhu and his arrest 9. The war of Liberation 1971 a. Genocide, repression of women, refugees b. Formation of Bangladesh government and proclamation of Independence c. The spontaneous early resistance and subsequent organized resistance (Mukti Fouz, Mukti Bahini, guerillas and the frontal warfare ) d. Publicity Campaign in the war of Liberation (Shadhin Bangla Betar Kendra, the Campaigns abroad and formation of public opinion ) e. Contribution of students, women and the masses (Peoples war) f. The role of super powers and the Muslim states in the Liberation war. g. The Anti-liberation activities of the occupation army, the Peace Committee, Al-Badar, Al-Shams, Rajakars, pro Pakistan political parties and Pakistani Collaborators , killing of the intellectuals. h. Trial of Bangabondhu and reaction of the World Community. i. The contribution of India in the Liberation War j. Formation of joint command and the Victory k. The overall contribution of Bangabondhu in the Independence struggle. 10. The Bangabondhu Regime 1972-1975 a. Homecoming b. Making of the constitution c. Reconstruction of the war ravaged country d. The murder of Bangabondhu and his family and the ideological turn-around.