SOCIETY/SOCIAL PROLEMS/SOCIAL TRENDS 1. “Although abuse of the system is inevitable, social welfare payments are essential to protect the rights citizens have to a guaranteed minimum income in a democratic society” Discuss. Social Welfare Payments: Essential for Guaranteed Minimum Income For: · Poverty alleviation: Social welfare payments provide financial support to vulnerable citizens, helping them meet basic needs and escape poverty. · Social stability: Guaranteeing a minimum income reduces the risk of social unrest and crime that can arise from widespread poverty and inequality. · Health and well-being: Access to financial assistance improves overall health and well-being, reducing the burden on healthcare systems. · Economic stimulus: Injecting funds into low-income communities through welfare payments can boost local economies and create a positive multiplier effect. · Equality and social justice: Ensuring a guaranteed minimum income promotes fairness and equal opportunities for all citizens, regardless of their socioeconomic background. · Human capital development: People with financial security are more likely to invest in education and skills development, contributing to a skilled workforce and economic growth. Against: · Moral hazard: Social welfare payments may discourage some individuals from seeking employment or self-improvement, leading to dependency on the system. · Economic burden: Maintaining a comprehensive welfare system can strain government finances, potentially leading to increased taxes or budget deficits. · Administrative complexities: The management of social welfare programs can be inefficient, with high administrative costs and bureaucratic red tape. · Fraud and abuse: The system is susceptible to exploitation and fraudulent claims, diverting resources from those who genuinely need assistance. · Incentive for informal economy: Generous welfare payments might incentivize people to work in the informal economy to retain benefits, hindering formal economic growth. · Negative work ethic: Some argue that welfare can erode the work ethic in society, as people may perceive it as a viable alternative to employment. Opinion: In a democratic society, social welfare payments are a necessary component to protect citizens' rights and ensure a minimum standard of living. However, measures must be in place to address potential abuses and inefficiencies in the system. 2. It is sometimes said that the countryside offers a high quality of life, especially for families. What are the arguments for and against families choosing to live and work in the countryside, for example as farmers? What is your own view about this? Living and Working in the Countryside: Arguments For and Against for Families Arguments For: Natural Environment: The countryside offers a serene and pollution-free environment, promoting physical and mental well-being for families. Sense of Community: Rural areas often have tight-knit communities, fostering a strong sense of belonging and support for families. Lower Cost of Living: Compared to urban areas, the cost of living in the countryside can be lower, providing economic relief for families. Family Bonding: The rural lifestyle encourages more family time and opportunities for shared activities. Education and Safety: Some rural areas boast excellent schools and a lower crime rate, appealing to families with children. Connection to Nature: Living in the countryside allows families to be closer to nature, encouraging a sustainable and environmentally conscious lifestyle. Arguments Against: Limited Job Opportunities: Rural areas may offer fewer job prospects, making it challenging for family members to find suitable employment. Educational and Healthcare Facilities: Access to quality education and healthcare services can be limited in some rural regions. Infrastructure and Connectivity: Poor infrastructure and limited internet connectivity can hinder daily life and professional opportunities. Social Isolation: Families may experience isolation due to the remoteness of rural locations, particularly if they are used to urban social networks. Agricultural Risks: Families choosing to be farmers face uncertainties related to weather, market fluctuations, and agricultural challenges. Cultural and Recreational Activities: Rural areas might lack diverse cultural and recreational opportunities available in cities. My View: Living and working in the countryside can offer a high quality of life for families, but it is not without its challenges. The connection to nature, sense of community, and healthier lifestyle are significant benefits. However, the limited job opportunities, education, and healthcare facilities should not be overlooked. 1. "City Planners' new designs include setting up schools, markets, and commercial places (offices) in different areas of the city. Do you think it will help the city dwellers?" Arguments in Favor of City Planners' New Designs: Improved Accessibility: Easy access to schools, markets, and offices in different areas. Reduces travel time and congestion, enhancing overall mobility. Enhanced Urban Functionality: Better organization of city functions leads to efficient urban management. Specialized areas promote economic growth and development. Reduced Urban Sprawl: Concentrating facilities reduces urban sprawl and preserves green spaces. Promotes a more sustainable and compact city layout. Community Development: Facilitates the development of vibrant communities in different zones. Encourages social interaction and neighborhood cohesion. Economic Benefits: Improved commercial areas attract businesses, boosting the local economy. Diverse facilities can attract investors and foster job opportunities. Enhanced Infrastructure: New designs enable better infrastructure planning and utilization. Supports long-term urban development and scalability. Arguments Against City Planners' New Designs: Social Disconnection: Separation of essential facilities may lead to fragmented communities. Reduced opportunities for spontaneous interactions and community bonding. Transportation Challenges: Dispersed locations may increase commuting distances and transportation costs. Inadequate infrastructure could lead to traffic congestion. Inequitable Access: Unequal distribution of services might disadvantage certain neighborhoods. Residents in distant areas may face difficulty accessing essential amenities. Disruption during Implementation: Relocating facilities can cause temporary disruptions to people's lives. Construction and transition phases might lead to inconveniences. Environmental Impact: Concentrated development may put pressure on local ecosystems. Reduced green spaces might affect the city's ecological balance. Cultural and Historical Loss: Demolition for new development may lead to the loss of historical buildings. Neglecting heritage can erode the city's cultural identity. Opinion: City planners' new designs have the potential to help city dwellers if executed thoughtfully and inclusively. Balancing accessibility, community needs, and sustainable practices is crucial for successful implementation. Public engagement and feedback should be prioritized to ensure the plans align with the aspirations of the city's residents. 2. Youth drug abuse is a serous problem. What are the possible causes of this behavior? Do you have any suggestion to control that? Use your own knowledge and experience and support your arguments with examples and relevant evidence. Possible Causes of Youth Drug Abuse: Peer Pressure and Social Influence: Youth often experiment with drugs due to pressure from friends or to fit in with certain social groups. Example: A teenager might start using drugs to gain acceptance within a popular peer circle. Family Environment and Upbringing: Dysfunctional family dynamics, parental substance abuse, or neglect can contribute to a higher risk of drug experimentation. Example: Children exposed to drug use at home may perceive it as a normal behavior. Mental Health Issues and Stress: Youth facing mental health challenges like anxiety, depression, or trauma may turn to drugs as a coping mechanism. Example: A student struggling with anxiety might resort to drugs to escape from their overwhelming emotions. Curiosity and Sensation-Seeking Behavior: Some youth try drugs out of curiosity or to experience new sensations, unaware of the potential risks. Example: A teenager might experiment with drugs to see how they affect their perception and mood. Easy Access to Drugs: Availability and accessibility of drugs in the community or through peers can make experimentation more likely. Example: A teenager may be tempted to try drugs when they are readily available at parties or social gatherings. Media and Popular Culture: Glamorization of drug use in movies, music, and social media can influence impressionable youth. Example: Portrayals of drug use in media can create a false perception of it being exciting and glamorous. Suggestions to Control Youth Drug Abuse: Education and Awareness: Implement comprehensive drug education programs in schools to inform students about the risks and consequences of drug abuse. Organize awareness campaigns to educate parents, teachers, and communities about the importance of early intervention. Mental Health Support: Enhance mental health services in schools and communities to provide early identification and intervention for at-risk youth. Encourage open discussions about mental health to reduce stigma and promote seeking help. Strengthening Family Bonds: Offer family counseling and support programs to improve family dynamics and communication. Promote positive parenting practices and provide resources for parents to address substance abuse issues. Community Involvement: Create safe and engaging community spaces for youth to participate in recreational activities and build positive relationships. Involve community leaders and organizations in prevention efforts to support at-risk youth. Enforcement and Regulation: Strengthen law enforcement efforts to prevent drug trafficking and reduce the availability of drugs. Implement stricter regulations on the sale and distribution of substances that are commonly abused by youth. Youth Empowerment: Foster a sense of purpose and empowerment among youth by providing opportunities for skill development and creative expression. Engage young people in advocacy and decision-making processes to address issues affecting their well-being. 5. The older generations tend to have very traditional ideas about how people should live, think and behave. However, some people believe that these ideas are not helpful in preparing younger generations for modern life. To what extent do you agree or disagree with this view? Traditional Ideas - Advantages: · Preserves cultural heritage and values. · Offers stability and a sense of continuity. · Instills discipline and respect for authority. · Provides a strong moral framework. · Fosters a close-knit community. · Emphasizes the importance of family and duty. Traditional Ideas - Disadvantages: · May hinder adaptability to modern challenges. · Could perpetuate outdated gender roles and stereotypes. · May discourage critical thinking and questioning. · Could lead to resistance to social progress and change. · May not cater to individual aspirations and talents. · Could limit exposure to diverse perspectives. Modern Life Preparation - Advantages: · Encourages innovation and creativity. · Nurtures adaptability and resilience. · Fosters critical thinking and problem-solving skills. · Promotes inclusivity and acceptance of diversity. · Prepares for a fast-paced and interconnected world. · Allows for individual expression and self-discovery. Modern Life Preparation - Disadvantages: · Risks losing valuable cultural traditions. · Could lead to a loss of moral values and ethics. · May create a fragmented sense of community. · Could result in excessive focus on materialism. · May exacerbate information overload and stress. · Could lead to a lack of appreciation for history and heritage. Opinion: In my opinion, I partially agree with the view that older generations' traditional ideas may not fully prepare younger individuals for modern life. While traditional values have their merits in preserving culture and providing stability, striking a balance with more modern approaches can better equip younger generations to navigate the complexities of today's rapidly changing world.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 1. Nowadays the way many people interact with each other has changed because of technology. In what ways has technology affected the types of relationships people make? Has this become a positive or negative development? Impact of Technology on Interpersonal Relationships Positive Developments: · Global connectivity: Technology has enabled people to connect with others worldwide, fostering international friendships and cross-cultural understanding. · Efficient communication: Instant messaging, video calls, and social media platforms facilitate quick and convenient interactions, overcoming geographical barriers. · Enhanced socialization: Virtual communities and online forums allow individuals with shared interests to find like-minded people and form niche relationships. Negative Developments: · Superficial connections: Online interactions may lack depth and intimacy, leading to shallow relationships. · Social isolation: Excessive reliance on technology can lead to reduced face-to-face interactions, potentially increasing feelings of loneliness and detachment. · Digital conflicts: Miscommunication and misunderstandings through text-based communication can strain relationships and lead to conflicts. Overall Impact of Technology on Relationships Positive: · Expanded social circles: Technology enables individuals to connect with a more extensive and diverse range of people, broadening their social circles. · Convenient maintenance: Long-distance relationships become more manageable through regular virtual communication. · Access to support networks: Online communities provide emotional support and understanding for people facing niche challenges. Negative: · Reduced intimacy: Lack of in-person interactions may hinder the development of deep emotional connections. · Privacy concerns: Technology can expose personal information, leading to trust issues and potential exploitation in relationships. · Distraction and addiction: Excessive use of technology can divert attention from real-life interactions and harm relationship dynamics. 2. Smart devices have put all of the world's information at our fingertips. The benefits of this development are obvious, but what are the drawbacks? Benefits of Smart Devices: 1. Access to Vast Information: · Instant access to a wealth of knowledge and data. · Facilitates research and learning on diverse topics. 2. Enhanced Connectivity: · Enables real-time communication with people worldwide. · Fosters global collaboration and networking. 3. Convenience and Efficiency: · Streamlines daily tasks with productivity apps and tools. · Simplifies information sharing and remote work. 4. Empowerment and Empathy: · Empowers individuals with self-learning opportunities. · Raises awareness about global issues and encourages empathy. 5. Personalization and AI Advancements: · Tailors content and recommendations based on user preferences. · Smart algorithms improve user experience and efficiency. 6. Health and Well-being: · Access to fitness apps and health information promotes wellness. · Telemedicine and health monitoring enhance healthcare accessibility. Drawbacks of Smart Devices: 1. Information Overload: · Excessive data can lead to distraction and reduced focus. · Misinformation and fake news spread rapidly. 2. Social Isolation and Addiction: · Excessive device use can lead to social disconnection. · Dependency on devices may result in addiction and mental health issues. 3. Privacy and Security Concerns: · Personal data vulnerability and potential breaches. · Increased risk of identity theft and cyberattacks. 4. Digital Divide: · Unequal access to smart devices and the internet. · Marginalized communities face barriers in benefiting from this technology. 5. Environmental Impact: · Electronic waste from discarded devices poses environmental challenges. · Energy consumption contributes to carbon footprint. 6. Dependency on Technology: · Over-reliance on smart devices can diminish critical thinking. · Traditional skills and knowledge may be forgotten. Opinion: The widespread use of smart devices is undeniably beneficial for accessing information and fostering global connectivity. However, we must address the drawbacks proactively to ensure a balanced and responsible integration of technology into our lives. Encouraging digital literacy, safeguarding privacy, and promoting equitable access to smart devices are essential steps to maximize the benefits while mitigating the negative consequences. 3. Since the 18th century technological advances have replaced people in the workplace. With today’s technology this process is happening at a greater rate. Technology is increasingly responsible for unemployment. To what extent do you agree or disagree with this statement? Agree with the Statement: 1. Automation and Job Displacement: · Advancements in technology, especially automation and AI, have led to the replacement of human workers in various industries. · Repetitive and routine tasks are increasingly being performed by machines, leading to unemployment in certain job sectors. 2. Economic Inequality: · Technology-driven unemployment can exacerbate income inequality, as displaced workers may struggle to find alternative employment, while skilled workers benefit from tech-related roles. 3. Changing Workforce Dynamics: · Technology's rapid evolution demands new skills, leaving some workers unable to adapt, resulting in unemployment or underemployment. · Traditional jobs are being replaced by specialized roles in technology-related fields. 4. Globalization and Outsourcing: · Technology facilitates outsourcing jobs to countries with lower labor costs, leading to job loss in high-wage regions. · Global competition driven by technology can put domestic workers at a disadvantage. Disagree with the Statement: 1. Job Creation in Technology Sector: · While some jobs are lost due to technology, many new positions are created in the technology sector itself, providing alternative employment opportunities. · Emerging fields like data science, cybersecurity, and app development offer diverse job prospects. 2. Increased Efficiency and Productivity: · Technology enhances productivity, allowing companies to expand and grow, leading to job creation in other sectors to meet increased demand. · Automation can free up human resources, enabling them to focus on more creative and strategic tasks. 3. Economic Growth and Innovation: · Technological advances drive economic growth and open up new industries, generating jobs that did not exist previously. · Innovation creates employment opportunities in areas like renewable energy and advanced manufacturing. 4. Adaptation and Reskilling: · Workers have historically adapted to technological changes by acquiring new skills and knowledge. · Investment in education and training can equip the workforce with the competencies needed to thrive in a tech-oriented job market. Opinion: I partially agree with the statement. While it is true that technological advancements have led to job displacement and unemployment in certain sectors, it is equally important to recognize that technology also contributes significantly to job creation and economic growth. The impact of technology on unemployment depends on how well society adapts to these changes. Investing in reskilling and upskilling programs, fostering innovation, and ensuring equitable access to opportunities can help mitigate the negative effects of technology-driven unemployment and harness its potential for overall societal progress. 5. There are many problems caused by mobile phones. What are the advantages of mobile phones? What are the disadvantages? Advantages of Mobile Phones: Communication and Connectivity: Mobile phones enable instant communication with people across the globe through calls, text messages, and social media platforms. They foster better connectivity, helping individuals stay in touch with family, friends, and colleagues. Information Access: Mobile phones provide easy access to vast amounts of information via the internet. Users can stay updated with news, research topics, and educational content. Emergency Assistance: Mobile phones serve as lifelines during emergencies, allowing users to seek help or report incidents quickly. Emergency services can locate individuals in distress through GPS tracking. Convenience and Productivity: Mobile phones offer a wide range of applications, enhancing productivity with features like calendars, reminders, and task management tools. They facilitate remote work and communication, improving work-life balance. Entertainment and Media Consumption: Mobile phones provide access to a variety of entertainment options, such as games, music, videos, and e-books. Users can enjoy entertainment on the go, making use of commuting time. E-commerce and Banking: Mobile phones enable secure online transactions and banking, making financial services accessible anytime and anywhere. E-commerce platforms provide convenient shopping experiences through mobile applications. Disadvantages of Mobile Phones: Health Concerns: Prolonged mobile phone usage may lead to health issues such as eye strain, neck pain, and sleep disturbances. Exposure to electromagnetic radiation raises concerns about potential long-term health effects. Addiction and Distraction: Excessive use of mobile phones can lead to addiction and reduced attention spans. Constant notifications and social media engagement can disrupt daily activities and relationships. Privacy and Security Risks: Mobile phones are susceptible to data breaches and hacking, compromising personal information. Location tracking raises privacy concerns and can be misused. Social Isolation: Over-reliance on mobile phones for communication may lead to reduced face-to-face interactions and social isolation. Online interactions may not fully replace the benefits of in-person connections. Environmental Impact: The production, usage, and disposal of mobile phones contribute to electronic waste and environmental degradation. Extraction of resources for phone components has environmental consequences. Distracted Driving and Safety Risks: Using mobile phones while driving poses significant safety risks and contributes to road accidents. Pedestrians distracted by their phones are also at risk of accidents. Conclusion: Mobile phones offer undeniable advantages, revolutionizing communication, and information access. However, their drawbacks, including health concerns, addiction, privacy issues, and social implications, must be addressed through responsible usage and technological advancements that prioritize user well-being and environmental sustainability. 5. Nowadays the way many people interact with each other has changed because of technology. In what ways has technology affected the types of relationships that people make? Has this been a positive or negative development? Ways Technology has Affected Types of Relationships: Digital Communication: Technology has revolutionized communication, allowing people to connect instantly through messaging apps, social media, and video calls. Long-distance relationships have become more manageable with virtual interactions. Social Networking: Social media platforms enable individuals to form and maintain friendships with people from diverse backgrounds and locations. Online communities foster connections based on shared interests and hobbies. Dating and Romantic Relationships: Dating apps and online platforms have changed how people meet potential partners, expanding the dating pool and introducing new ways of courtship. Virtual connections allow individuals to get to know each other before meeting in person. Professional Networking: Technology facilitates networking opportunities, connecting professionals across industries and promoting career growth. Online platforms like LinkedIn have become crucial for job-seeking and business development. Support Networks: Online support groups and forums offer solace to individuals facing challenges or specific life situations. Virtual communities provide emotional support and empathy. Positive Aspects of Technology on Relationships: Enhanced Connectivity: Technology fosters continuous and accessible communication, strengthening relationships regardless of distance. Families and friends can share experiences and stay connected in real-time. Global Reach and Diversity: Technology breaks down geographical barriers, enabling cross-cultural interactions and fostering understanding between diverse groups. People can learn from and appreciate different perspectives. Efficient and Convenient Communication: Technology offers quick and efficient communication methods, making it easier to coordinate and plan events. It saves time and effort in staying connected with multiple individuals. Greater Access to Resources: Virtual support networks and educational platforms provide resources and advice on various topics, enhancing personal growth and relationships. Negative Aspects of Technology on Relationships: Superficial Connections: Online interactions may lack depth and authenticity compared to face-to-face communication. Some relationships on social media may remain shallow and superficial. Dependency and Isolation: Excessive reliance on technology can lead to addiction, causing individuals to withdraw from real-life interactions. Social media may create feelings of inadequacy and isolation. Privacy Concerns: Online interactions may compromise personal privacy and lead to potential data breaches. People may hesitate to share genuine emotions or thoughts due to concerns about online exposure. Conclusion: Technology has significantly impacted the types of relationships people make, offering opportunities for global connections and new forms of communication. While technology's positive aspects enhance connectivity, diversity, and access to resources, negative aspects like superficiality, dependency, and privacy concerns call for responsible and balanced use. It is essential for individuals to embrace technology mindfully, leveraging its benefits while nurturing meaningful and authentic relationships in both the virtual and real-world realms. 6. Smart devices have put all of the world's information at our fingertips. The benefits of this development are obvious, but what are the drawbacks? Drawbacks of Smart Devices: Information Overload: Access to vast information can be overwhelming, leading to information overload and reduced ability to focus on critical tasks. Distinguishing reliable sources from misinformation can be challenging. Digital Addiction and Distraction: Smart devices can lead to addictive behaviors, with users constantly checking notifications and engaging in social media. Excessive device use can negatively impact productivity, relationships, and mental well-being. Privacy and Security Concerns: Smart devices collect and store vast amounts of personal data, raising concerns about privacy and potential misuse of information. Cybersecurity threats, such as hacking and data breaches, pose risks to individuals and organizations. Social Isolation and Communication Issues: Overreliance on digital communication may diminish face-to-face interactions, leading to social isolation and reduced emotional connections. Misinterpretation of text-based communication can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts. Physical Health Implications: Prolonged use of smart devices can contribute to physical health issues like eye strain, neck pain, and posture problems. Excessive screen time, especially before bedtime, can disrupt sleep patterns. Environmental Impact: The production and disposal of smart devices contribute to electronic waste, posing environmental challenges. Increased energy consumption from device usage impacts carbon footprint. Digital Divide: Unequal access to smart devices and the internet can create disparities in information availability and opportunities. Marginalized communities may be left behind in benefiting from technology advancements. Erosion of Real-World Skills: Relying on smart devices for everyday tasks may lead to the erosion of essential skills like navigation, memory, and critical thinking. Dependency on technology can hinder problem-solving abilities. Economic and Social Inequality: Access to smart devices and high-speed internet is often linked to socioeconomic status, exacerbating economic and social disparities. Those without access may miss out on educational and employment opportunities. Short Attention Span and Reduced Patience: Constant exposure to quick, bite-sized information on smart devices may contribute to a shorter attention span and reduced patience for complex content. In-depth reading and focus on lengthy materials may decline. 6. Many people today are worried about cybercrimes such as hacking and identity theft. What problems does `cybercrime' cause, and what solutions can you suggest for ordinary people and businesses to take? Problems Caused by Cybercrime: Financial Loss and Identity Theft: Cybercriminals can steal sensitive financial information, leading to monetary losses and identity theft for individuals and businesses. Unauthorized access to bank accounts and credit card details can result in significant financial harm. Data Breaches and Privacy Violations: Cyberattacks can lead to data breaches, compromising personal and confidential information. Loss of privacy can result in reputational damage for individuals and businesses. Disruption of Business Operations: Ransomware attacks and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks can disrupt business operations, leading to downtime and financial losses. Critical infrastructure and services may be targeted, affecting public safety. Intellectual Property Theft: Cybercriminals may steal intellectual property, trade secrets, and proprietary information, causing financial harm and hindering innovation. Competing businesses can suffer from unfair advantage due to stolen data. Social Engineering and Phishing Scams: Cybercriminals use social engineering tactics to manipulate individuals into revealing sensitive information or transferring money. Phishing scams can deceive people into providing login credentials, leading to unauthorized access. Spread of Malware and Viruses: Cyberattacks can involve the distribution of malware and viruses, affecting individuals' and businesses' computer systems and networks. This can lead to data loss, system damage, and potential further spread of malicious software. Solutions for Ordinary People and Businesses: Cybersecurity Education and Training: Regularly educate and train employees and individuals on cybersecurity best practices, including recognizing phishing attempts and social engineering tactics. Stay informed about the latest cyber threats and trends. Use Strong Passwords and Multi-Factor Authentication: Encourage the use of strong, unique passwords for all accounts and implement multi-factor authentication to add an extra layer of security. Keep Software and Systems Updated: Regularly update operating systems, software, and applications to patch known vulnerabilities. Enable automatic updates whenever possible. Backup Data Regularly: Regularly back up important data and files to secure, offline locations to mitigate the impact of ransomware attacks and data breaches. Implement Robust Security Measures: Install reputable antivirus and firewall software to protect against malware and cyber threats. Use encryption to secure sensitive data. Limit Access and Privileges: Restrict access to sensitive information and systems only to authorized personnel. Implement the principle of least privilege to minimize the impact of potential breaches. Secure Network and Wi-Fi Connections: Secure Wi-Fi networks with strong passwords and encryption to prevent unauthorized access. Use Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) for secure remote connections. Monitor and Detect Anomalies: Regularly monitor network traffic and system logs for suspicious activities. Implement intrusion detection systems to detect and respond to cyber threats. Report and Collaborate: Encourage reporting of cybersecurity incidents promptly to relevant authorities or IT departments. Collaborate with law enforcement and cybersecurity experts to investigate and address cybercrimes. Create a Cybersecurity Culture: Foster a cybersecurity culture that emphasizes the importance of vigilance and best practices across all levels of the organization or community. 8. Do you support the use of nuclear technology to be used for constructive purposes? Use your own knowledge and experience and support your arguments with examples and relevant evidence. Support for the use of nuclear technology: 1. Clean Energy Generation: · Nuclear power plants produce large amounts of electricity with minimal greenhouse gas emissions. · Helps reduce reliance on fossil fuels and combat climate change. 2. Medical Advancements: · Nuclear technology enables medical imaging (e.g., MRI, PET scans) for accurate diagnosis. · Radioisotopes aid in cancer treatment and sterilization of medical equipment. 3. Agricultural Benefits: · Radiation can be used to develop disease-resistant crops and increase agricultural productivity. · Preserves food by reducing spoilage and eliminating pests. 4. Industrial Applications: · Nuclear technology supports non-destructive testing for quality control in industries. · Used in research and material analysis, leading to technological advancements. 5. Space Exploration: · Nuclear propulsion systems offer faster and more efficient space travel. · Provides opportunities for exploration beyond our solar system. 6. National Security: · Nuclear energy can bolster energy security by diversifying power sources. · Supports nuclear submarines and carriers for defense purposes. Opposition to the use of nuclear technology: 1. Safety Concerns: · Nuclear accidents, like Chernobyl and Fukushima, pose catastrophic risks to human health and the environment. · Radioactive waste disposal remains a long-term unsolved challenge. 2. Proliferation of Weapons: · Dual-use technology raises fears of nuclear weapon development. · Nuclear material diversion could fuel arms race and global insecurity. 3. High Cost and Subsidies: · Building and maintaining nuclear power plants require significant investment. · Governments often subsidize nuclear projects, which could be better allocated elsewhere. 4. Limited Uranium Reserves: · The world's uranium resources are finite and might deplete over time. · Transitioning to alternative energy sources could be more sustainable. 5. Potential Terrorism Target: · Nuclear facilities are susceptible to security breaches and terrorist attacks. · A security breach could lead to devastating consequences. 6. Public Opposition: · Concerns about nuclear accidents and waste disposal lead to public resistance. · Opposition hinders social acceptance and smooth implementation. Opinion: Based on my knowledge and experience, I believe that the use of nuclear technology for constructive purposes can be beneficial if managed responsibly. While acknowledging its advantages in clean energy and medical applications, the potential risks and challenges, such as safety concerns and proliferation issues, must be addressed through stringent regulations, advanced safety measures, and sustainable waste management. Public awareness and engagement are vital for making informed decisions about nuclear technology usage. 1. The advent of the internet has made it possible for people to work from home. Write an essay looking at the advantages and disadvantages of this professional arrangement. Share personal examples in your essay. Advantages of Working from Home: Work-life balance: Flexibility to manage personal and professional commitments. Increased productivity: Fewer distractions and personalized work environment. Cost savings: Reduced commuting expenses and potential tax benefits. Access to a global talent pool: Employers can hire remote workers from anywhere. Health benefits: Reduced exposure to office-related illnesses and stress. Environmental impact: Decreased carbon emissions from commuting. Disadvantages of Working from Home: Social isolation: Limited face-to-face interaction with colleagues. Work-life boundary blur: Difficulty in separating work and personal life. Technology challenges: Reliability and security concerns of remote tools. Career advancement: Potential limitations in remote work opportunities. Team collaboration: Challenges in coordinating group projects virtually. Mental health: Potential feelings of loneliness or disconnection. Personal Opinion - Working from Home: Improved work-life balance and flexibility have positively impacted productivity. Remote work allows for a global perspective and diverse collaboration. Personally experienced cost savings and reduced stress from commuting. Social isolation can be mitigated by virtual team-building activities. Leveraging technology effectively can address many remote work challenges. Overall, a balanced approach to hybrid work seems most favorable. 2. The advent of the internet has made it possible for people to work from home. Do you feel this working arrangement has more advantages or disad¬vantages? Share personal examples in your essay. Advantages of Working from Home: Work-life balance: Flexibility in working hours allows for better time management. Increased productivity: Fewer distractions and comfortable environment can enhance focus. Cost savings: Reduced commuting expenses and potential tax benefits. Access to global opportunities: Working remotely opens up job prospects beyond local boundaries. Health benefits: Reduced exposure to office-related stress and illnesses. Eco-friendly: Decreased carbon footprint due to reduced commuting. Disadvantages of Working from Home: Social isolation: Limited face-to-face interactions may lead to loneliness. Blurred boundaries: Difficulty in disconnecting from work, leading to burnout. Communication challenges: Dependency on virtual tools may hinder effective collaboration. Career growth limitations: Remote work may result in fewer networking opportunities. Home distractions: Family or household activities can disrupt productivity. Technological issues: Connectivity problems may impact work efficiency. Opinion: Working from Home I believe working from home offers numerous advantages that outweigh the disadvantages, based on my personal experience: Advantages: Improved work-life balance allowed me to manage personal commitments effectively. The comfortable home environment significantly increased my productivity. Saved time and money on commuting expenses, contributing to cost savings. The flexibility enabled me to take on projects from different countries, expanding my career opportunities. Reduced office-related stress and a healthier work atmosphere positively impacted my well-being. Contributing to environmental preservation by reducing my carbon footprint. Overall, the benefits of working from home have made it a preferred and successful arrangement for me, both personally and professionally. 11. Internet crime is increasing rapidly as growing numbers of people purchase goods over the internet. What can be done to tackle this problem? Tackling Internet Crime: Strengthen Cybersecurity Measures: Enforce robust encryption and data protection standards. Promote the use of multi-factor authentication for online transactions. Collaborate with tech companies to develop advanced security tools. Public Awareness and Education: Educate users about common online threats and scams. Encourage safe online practices and responsible behavior. Raise awareness about phishing, identity theft, and other cybercrimes. Law Enforcement and International Cooperation: Increase resources for cybercrime units within law enforcement agencies. Foster collaboration between countries to combat cross-border cybercrimes. Establish international treaties and agreements to facilitate information sharing. Regulation and Legislation: Implement and update stringent laws and regulations for online transactions. Hold e-commerce platforms accountable for the security of customer data. Establish clear guidelines for reporting and handling cybercrime cases. Partnerships with Private Sector: Engage with online retailers to implement secure payment gateways. Collaborate with financial institutions to monitor and prevent fraudulent activities. Encourage tech companies to develop innovative anti-cybercrime solutions. Encourage Responsible Business Practices: Promote transparency in data collection and usage by online businesses. Reward companies with strong cybersecurity practices through certifications. Impose penalties for negligence in safeguarding customer data. Support for Cybercrime Victims: Establish dedicated helplines and support centers for cybercrime victims. Provide counseling and legal assistance to those affected by online fraud. Ensure a swift and efficient process for reporting cybercrime incidents. Continuous Research and Development: Invest in research to stay ahead of evolving cyber threats. Foster innovation in cybersecurity technology and techniques. Develop tools to identify and track cybercriminals more effectively. Addressing the increasing internet crime requires a comprehensive approach involving individuals, businesses, governments, and international cooperation. By implementing these strategies, the world can create a safer and more secure digital environment for everyone. 3. The advent of the internet has made it possible for people to work from home. Do you feel this working arrangement has more advantages or disadvantages? Share personal examples in your essay. Advantages of Working from Home: 1. Flexibility and Work-Life Balance: Working from home allows me to manage my work schedule around personal commitments and family responsibilities, leading to a better work-life balance. 2. Increased Productivity: I find that I am more focused and productive in my home environment, as I can create a personalized and comfortable workspace tailored to my needs. 3. Cost Savings: With no daily commute, I save on transportation expenses, fuel costs, and work-related expenses, contributing to significant financial savings. 4. Global Job Opportunities: Remote work opens up opportunities to collaborate with clients and colleagues from around the world, expanding my professional network and experience. 5. Reduced Stress: Avoiding rush-hour traffic and the stresses of a physical office environment has positively impacted my mental well-being and overall job satisfaction. 6. Environmental Impact: By working from home, I reduce my carbon footprint, contributing to environmental preservation. Disadvantages of Working from Home: 1. Social Isolation: The lack of face-to-face interactions with colleagues can lead to feelings of isolation and reduced team bonding, affecting the overall work culture. 2. Blurred Work-Life Boundaries: As my home is my workplace, it becomes challenging to disconnect from work, leading to potential burnout and difficulty in switching off. 3. Communication Challenges: Relying on virtual communication tools may sometimes lead to misinterpretations, and there can be delays in responses, affecting collaboration. 4. Limited Career Growth Opportunities: Remote work may result in fewer opportunities for promotion or professional development, as visibility within the organization could be reduced. 5. Home Distractions: While working from home, I occasionally face interruptions from family members or household activities, impacting my concentration and productivity. 6. Technical Issues: Connectivity problems or technology failures can disrupt workflow and cause delays in completing tasks. Opinion: Working from Home In my experience, the advantages of working from home far outweigh the disadvantages: Advantages: 1. The flexibility allows me to manage both my professional and personal life more efficiently. 2. My productivity has notably increased due to a comfortable and distraction-free environment. 3. The substantial cost savings contribute to my financial well-being and job satisfaction. 4. Collaborating with individuals from different countries has broadened my horizons and enriched my professional experience. 5. The reduced stress and improved work-life balance have positively impacted my overall well-being. 6. Contributing to environmental preservation by reducing my carbon footprint brings a sense of fulfillment. Disadvantages: 1. Social isolation can be mitigated through virtual team-building activities and occasional in-person meetings. 2. Setting boundaries and creating a dedicated workspace helps me maintain a healthy work-life balance. 3. Effective communication practices and choosing the right communication tools can address collaboration challenges. 4. Seeking out online training and networking opportunities can compensate for limited career growth prospects. 5. Establishing ground rules with family members and creating a focused work environment helps manage distractions. 6. Backup internet options and regular technology maintenance can minimize technical disruptions. In conclusion, based on my personal experiences, working from home has proven to be a highly advantageous working arrangement, enhancing my productivity, well-being, and overall job satisfaction. By proactively addressing the challenges, I have been able to reap the benefits of this flexible and modern way of working. 4. Some people regard video games as harmless fun, or even as a useful educational tool. Others, however, believe that videos games are having an adverse effect on the people who play them. In your opinion, do the drawbacks of video games outweigh the benefits? Benefits of Video Games: · Cognitive development: Enhances problem-solving and critical thinking skills. · Educational value: Can be used for learning and skill development in various subjects. · Hand-eye coordination: Improves fine motor skills and coordination. · Social interaction: Facilitates teamwork and communication in multiplayer games. · Stress relief: Acts as a form of escapism and stress reduction. · Career opportunities: Fosters the growth of the gaming industry and related professions. Drawbacks of Video Games: · Addiction: Excessive gaming can lead to addiction and withdrawal from real-life activities. · Health issues: Prolonged screen time may result in eye strain, sleep disturbances, and posture problems. · Violence and aggression: Some games with violent content may influence aggressive behavior. · Academic performance: Excessive gaming can negatively impact academic performance. · Social isolation: Excessive gaming may lead to social withdrawal and reduced face-to-face interactions. · Opportunity cost: Time spent gaming may replace time for other beneficial activities. Opinion: In my opinion, while video games offer significant benefits such as cognitive development and educational value, the drawbacks, particularly the risk of addiction and potential impact on health and social life, outweigh the benefits. It is essential to strike a balance and use video games responsibly. 5. Nowadays the way many people interact with each other has changed because of technology. In what ways has technology affected the types of relationships that people make? Has this been a positive or negative development? Ways Technology has Affected Types of Relationships: Positive Effects: · Increased Connectivity: Technology enables people to connect and communicate with others globally, breaking down geographical barriers. · Diverse Social Circles: Online platforms allow individuals to form relationships with people from different backgrounds and cultures. · Enhanced Communication: Instant messaging and video calls facilitate real-time interaction, improving long-distance relationships. · Social Support Networks: Online communities provide emotional support and connections for individuals with shared interests or experiences. Negative Effects: · Superficial Connections: Online interactions may lack depth and emotional intimacy, leading to superficial relationships. · Decreased Face-to-Face Interaction: Excessive reliance on technology can reduce in-person socialization and weaken interpersonal skills. · Privacy Concerns: Technology can lead to the erosion of privacy in relationships due to data sharing and surveillance. · Digital Conflict: Miscommunication and misunderstanding through digital channels can lead to conflicts in relationships. · Dependency and Addiction: Excessive use of technology can lead to dependency and addiction, impacting real-life relationships. Overall Impact - Opinion: In my opinion, the impact of technology on relationships is a mixed blessing. While it has expanded opportunities for connectivity and diversified social circles, there are concerns about the quality of relationships formed online. The ease of communication can be beneficial, but face-to-face interactions are crucial for meaningful connections. Striking a balance between digital interactions and real-life engagement is essential to harness the positive aspects of technology while mitigating its potential negative effects on relationships. 6. Some people believe that developments in the field of artificial intelligence will have a positive impact on our lives in the near future. Others, by contrast, are worried that we are not prepared for a world in which computers are more intelligent than humans. Discuss both of these views and give your own opinion. Positive Impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI): · Efficiency and Automation: AI can streamline various processes, increasing efficiency and productivity in industries such as manufacturing, healthcare, and transportation. · Medical Advancements: AI-powered medical diagnostics and treatments can lead to improved healthcare outcomes and personalized medicine. · Enhanced Safety: AI can be applied in areas like autonomous vehicles and disaster response systems to enhance safety and reduce human errors. · Innovation and Creativity: AI can aid in research, generating new ideas, and augmenting human creativity in various fields. · Assistance to Humans: AI-powered virtual assistants and chatbots can provide support, making daily tasks more manageable and convenient. Concerns About AI Supremacy: · Ethical Dilemmas: The development of superintelligent AI raises ethical concerns about control, decision-making, and potential unintended consequences. · Job Displacement: AI automation may lead to job losses and economic disparities if not managed properly. · Security Risks: With advanced AI, there are concerns about cybersecurity and the potential misuse of technology for harmful purposes. · Dependency on AI: Overreliance on AI may result in a loss of human skills and capabilities. · Lack of Understanding: Some worry that humans may not fully comprehend or predict AI behavior, leading to potential challenges in managing AI systems. Opinion: In my opinion, developments in artificial intelligence have the potential for significant positive impact on our lives. AI can revolutionize various sectors, leading to improved efficiency, better healthcare, and safer technologies. However, it is crucial to address the concerns surrounding AI supremacy, such as ethical considerations and job displacement.

MEDIA/SOCIAL MEDIA 1. Today, the expensive price of popular consumer products is because of the power of advertising and not the real needs of people. Do you agree or disagree? Agree: Manipulative Advertising: Powerful advertising campaigns can create artificial demand for products that people might not necessarily need. Brand Image and Status: Companies use advertising to associate their products with a certain lifestyle or social status, leading people to buy for prestige rather than necessity. Consumerism Culture: Aggressive advertising fosters a consumerist culture, encouraging people to constantly seek the latest products, even if they don't require them. Product Differentiation: Advertising can exaggerate small differences between products, making consumers believe they need the latest version, contributing to higher prices. Waste and Overconsumption: The focus on advertising and constant product upgrades can lead to wasteful overconsumption, contributing to environmental issues. Disagree: Supply and Demand: Prices are primarily determined by supply and demand in the market, not just advertising. Popular products may have higher demand, driving up their prices. Production Costs: Some popular products may have higher production costs due to technology, materials, or research and development, which can reflect in their prices. Quality and Features: People might be willing to pay more for popular products that offer better quality, features, or performance, even if not strictly necessary. R&D Investment: Advertising might be a response to the higher costs incurred in research and development, leading to the need to promote the products more aggressively. Economies of Scale: Mass production of popular products can reduce unit costs, but this might not necessarily translate to lower prices if consumer demand is high. Summary: While advertising can influence consumer behavior and create artificial demand to some extent, it is not the sole factor responsible for the expensive price of popular consumer products. Other factors, such as supply and demand, production costs, product quality, and R&D investment, also play significant roles in determining prices. 2. News editors decide what to broadcast on television and what to print in newspapers. What factors do you think influence these decisions? Have we become used to bad news? Wouldn’t it be better if more good news was reported? Factors Influencing News Decisions: · Relevance and Significance: News editors prioritize stories that are relevant to their audience and have significant societal, economic, or political impact. · Timeliness: Breaking news and current events are given priority to keep the audience informed in real-time. · Public Interest: Stories that resonate with a wide audience or affect public welfare often receive more coverage. · Ratings and Profitability: Media outlets consider viewership, readership, and advertising revenue when selecting news content. · Editorial Agenda: News organizations may have specific editorial stances or priorities that influence their coverage. Perception of Bad News: · Negativity Bias: Human psychology tends to pay more attention to negative information, making bad news more engaging. · Sensationalism: Media might emphasize dramatic or alarming events to attract attention and increase viewership. · 24-Hour News Cycle: Constant availability of news can lead to an overload of negative stories, contributing to a perception of overwhelming bad news. Importance of Reporting Good News: · Balanced Perspective: Including good news can provide a more balanced view of the world and counteract excessive negativity. · Inspiration and Hope: Positive stories can uplift and inspire audiences, promoting a sense of optimism. · Community Building: Reporting on positive events and initiatives fosters a sense of community and social cohesion. · Incentive for Positive Action: Sharing good news can encourage individuals and organizations to continue making positive contributions. Challenges in Reporting Good News: · News Judgment: Editors must carefully select good news stories to avoid trivializing or overlooking important issues. · Interest and Engagement: Some audiences may still gravitate towards negative news, making it challenging to maintain viewership with positive stories. · Accessibility of Good News: Positive events and initiatives may not always be as readily accessible or visible as negative events. Potential Solutions: · Balanced Reporting: Media outlets can strive for a more balanced approach by including a mix of positive and negative news. · Highlighting Solutions: Focusing on solutions and progress in challenging situations can provide constructive perspectives. · Dedicated Good News Segments: Media can dedicate specific segments or sections to highlight positive news and inspiring stories. · Audience Feedback: Media organizations can seek audience input to understand preferences for news content. Conclusion: While various factors influence news decisions, a balanced approach that includes both good and bad news is essential to provide a comprehensive view of the world. Including more good news can inspire, foster hope, and promote positive actions, contributing to a healthier media landscape and a more informed and engaged audience. 3. News editors decide what to broadcast on television and what to write in newspapers. What factors influence these decisions? Do you think we become used to bad news? Should more good news be reported? Factors influencing news editor decisions: For Broadcasting and Newspapers: Relevance: Selecting stories that are relevant to the target audience and have a significant impact on society. Timeliness: Prioritizing current and breaking news to keep the audience informed in real-time. Public interest: Focusing on issues that resonate with the public and affect their lives directly. Sensationalism: Attracting viewers/readers through dramatic or attention-grabbing stories. Political and commercial interests: Catering to stakeholders' preferences and aligning with media organizations' political or financial agendas. Resource constraints: Considering the availability of reporters, equipment, and budget for coverage. Opinions on news exposure and reporting: Becoming used to bad news: Desensitization: Repeated exposure to negative news can lead to emotional numbing and reduced sensitivity. Normalization: Consistent coverage of bad news may make it seem common and expected. Coping mechanism: Some individuals may adopt the "learned helplessness" approach to deal with overwhelming negativity. Should more good news be reported? Balancing coverage: Providing a mix of positive and negative news to present a comprehensive view of the world. Psychological impact: Reporting good news can improve audience well-being and mental health. Inspiration and hope: Sharing uplifting stories can motivate positive actions and foster a sense of community. Counteracting bias: Addressing the potential bias towards negative news, creating a more balanced media landscape. Highlighting solutions: Reporting on positive developments can encourage problem-solving and innovation. Promoting empathy: Positive news can create empathy and compassion, connecting people from different backgrounds. 4. Nowadays there are more and more advertisements. Some people think that they have a negative influence on people, and therefore should be restricted. Do you agree or disagree? Agree: · Manipulative tactics: Advertisements often use psychological techniques to influence consumers' emotions and behaviors, leading to impulsive and unnecessary purchases. · Consumerism and materialism: Excessive advertising promotes a culture of consumerism, where people prioritize material possessions over more meaningful aspects of life. · Impact on vulnerable groups: Advertisements can exploit vulnerable populations, such as children and those with low financial literacy, leading to potential harm or exploitation. · Intrusiveness: With the rise of online advertising and targeted ads, people's privacy is compromised, and they may feel constantly bombarded with commercial messages. · Environmental impact: The promotion of consumption contributes to the production of goods, potentially leading to overconsumption and environmental degradation. · Mental health concerns: Constant exposure to idealized images and lifestyles in advertisements can negatively impact self-esteem and mental well-being, fostering feelings of inadequacy and dissatisfaction. Disagree: · Economic benefits: Advertising plays a crucial role in supporting various industries and businesses, driving economic growth and job creation. · Informed choices: Well-crafted advertisements provide information about products and services, enabling consumers to make informed decisions. · Creativity and culture: Advertising can be a form of creative expression, contributing to cultural diversity and artistic endeavors. · Free media and content: Advertising supports free access to media, including online platforms and television, reducing the need for direct payment by consumers. · Healthy competition: Advertisements create competition among brands, encouraging companies to improve their products and services. · Personalized experience: Targeted advertising can offer users relevant content and suggestions tailored to their interests and needs. 5. Many people believe that media coverage of celebrities is having a negative effect on children. To what extent do you agree or disagree with this opinion? Agree: · Unrealistic standards: Media coverage often portrays celebrities with idealized appearances and lifestyles, creating unrealistic standards that can negatively impact children's self-esteem and body image. · Materialistic values: Celebrity culture promotes materialism and the pursuit of fame and wealth, leading children to prioritize superficial goals over more meaningful ones. · Inappropriate behavior: Media coverage of celebrities engaging in controversial or harmful behaviors can influence children to imitate or normalize such actions. · Loss of privacy: Excessive media attention on celebrities' personal lives can blur the line between public and private, teaching children that invasion of privacy is acceptable. · Distraction from education and real-world issues: Excessive focus on celebrity news can divert children's attention away from academics and important global events. Disagree: · Parental responsibility: Parents play a crucial role in guiding children's media consumption and explaining the difference between reality and fiction. · Teaching opportunities: Media coverage of celebrities' successes and failures can be used as teaching moments to discuss values, ethics, and responsible behavior. · Aspirational models: Some celebrities serve as positive role models, using their influence for social causes and inspiring children to make a positive impact on society. · Cultural and artistic appreciation: Celebrity involvement in arts and culture can introduce children to various art forms, encouraging creative expression and exploration. · Entertainment and escapism: Enjoyment of celebrity news can provide children with a form of entertainment and relaxation, as long as it is balanced with other activities. · Career aspirations: Exposure to successful celebrities in various fields can inspire children to pursue their passions and work hard to achieve their goals. 6. "Advertisements of toys and fast foods are obstacles to children’s physical and mental development, and, at the same time, cause loss of time and money of parents." Give your opinion in no less than 250 words. Advertisements: Obstacles to Children's Development For: · Excessive consumerism: Encourages materialistic values and creates a sense of constant desire for new toys and fast food, impacting children's emotional development. · Unhealthy habits: Promotes the consumption of fast foods, leading to poor dietary choices and potential health issues like obesity. · Influence on behavior: Manipulates children's preferences and demands, putting pressure on parents to fulfill their desires. Against: · Entertainment and imagination: Some toy advertisements spark creativity and imaginative play, fostering cognitive development. · Socialization: Advertisements may introduce children to shared interests, facilitating social bonding with peers over popular toys and fast-food items. · Parental control: Responsible parents can guide their children's exposure to ads, using them as teachable moments to promote critical thinking. Advertisements: Loss of Time and Money for Parents For: · Pestering power: Children's incessant requests for advertised toys and fast foods can create stress for parents and lead to impulsive spending. · Financial burden: Frequent purchases driven by advertising can strain family budgets, diverting funds from essential needs. · Diminished family time: Constant exposure to ads may lead to increased screen time, reducing quality family interactions. Against: · Informed choices: Advertisements provide parents with information about new products and offerings, aiding decision-making. · Choice of convenience: Fast-food ads may help time-constrained parents find quick meal solutions during busy days. · Parental discretion: Ultimately, parents have the final say in what their children consume, and ads merely act as influencers. Opinion Advertisements undoubtedly have a profound impact on children's development and family dynamics. While they can lead to excessive consumerism, unhealthy habits, and increased financial burden, they are not solely negative. Some advertisements foster creativity, socialization, and informed decision-making. 7. Many people believe that social networking sites (such as Facebook) have had a huge negative impact on both individuals and society. To what extent do you agree? Negative Impact of Social Networking Sites: Mental health effects: Increased anxiety and stress from social comparison. Addiction and dependency on constant validation. Cyberbullying leading to emotional trauma. Privacy and security concerns: Breach of personal data and identity theft. Risks of online scams and fraud. Exposure to potential predators. Reduced face-to-face interactions: Diminished social skills and empathy. Weakening of real-life relationships. Social isolation and loneliness. Spread of misinformation: Proliferation of fake news and conspiracy theories. Amplification of rumors and unverified information. Erosion of trust in reliable sources. Productivity and academic performance: Distraction and time-wasting on social media. Decline in work and study efficiency. Negative impact on grades and performance. Positive Impact of Social Networking Sites: Global connectivity and communication: Facilitating instant connections worldwide. Bridging gaps between cultures and countries. Enabling support during crises and disasters. Empowerment and awareness: Platform for social and political activism. Raising awareness for important causes. Amplifying marginalized voices. Educational opportunities: Access to diverse learning resources. Online courses and educational communities. Knowledge-sharing and collaborative projects. Business and entrepreneurship: Marketing and reaching target audiences. Networking and business expansion opportunities. Fostering innovation and start-up growth. Social support and mental health benefits: Finding like-minded communities and support groups. Sharing experiences and seeking advice. Reducing feelings of social isolation. Opinion: While there are undeniable negative aspects of social networking sites, I believe that the positive impact cannot be ignored. However, it is crucial for individuals and society to approach these platforms with caution and awareness to mitigate the potential harms and fully harness the benefits they offer.

LANGUAGE 1. Several languages die every year. Many people feel this is a positive trend and that a world with fewer languages promotes harmony and understanding between people. Analyze both sides of this argument and provide your opinion. Positive Aspects of Language Die-out: · Global Communication: Fewer languages facilitate easier global communication and understanding. · Cultural Homogenization: Language reduction can lead to a more unified global culture. · Efficiency in Education: Teaching fewer languages can streamline education systems. · Economic Benefits: Common languages simplify international trade and business transactions. · Integration and Migration: Shared languages can ease integration for immigrants in new countries. · Preservation of Dominant Languages: Diminished languages lead to more resources for preserving major languages. Negative Aspects of Language Die-out: · Cultural Loss: Each language carries unique cultural knowledge and traditions. · Identity Erosion: Losing languages threatens the identities of affected communities. · Linguistic Diversity Benefits: Different languages offer diverse ways of thinking and problem-solving. · Endangered Knowledge: Rare languages may hold vital ecological or medicinal knowledge. · Social Inequality: Language extinction can exacerbate social hierarchies and discrimination. · Language Revival Difficulties: Once lost, reviving a language becomes increasingly challenging. Opinion: Preserving linguistic diversity is crucial for humanity's cultural heritage and cognitive richness. While promoting widely-spoken languages has its advantages, active efforts should be made to document, revitalize, and celebrate endangered languages to maintain our global cultural tapestry. 2. Several languages are in danger of extinction because they are spoken by very small numbers of people. Some people say that governments should spend public money on saving these languages, while others believe that would be a waste of money. Discuss both these views and give your opinion. Viewpoint 1: Government Spending to Save Endangered Languages Cultural Preservation: Governments have a responsibility to preserve the unique cultural heritage embedded in endangered languages. Linguistic Diversity: Maintaining diverse languages promotes a richer global linguistic landscape. Identity and Social Cohesion: Saving languages helps communities retain their identities and fosters social cohesion. Educational Benefits: Studying endangered languages can provide valuable insights into history, traditions, and indigenous knowledge. Tourism and Heritage: Preserving endangered languages can attract cultural tourism and promote national heritage. Viewpoint 2: Consideration of Resource Allocation Limited Funds: Governments must prioritize spending on more pressing issues, like education, healthcare, and infrastructure. Limited Speakers: With few speakers, the practicality of using endangered languages in official settings or education may be limited. Language Shift: Languages might naturally evolve or blend with dominant languages over time, making preservation efforts futile. Revival Challenges: Reviving languages without a strong speaker base can be costly and challenging. Language Rights: Critics argue that efforts should focus on preserving cultures and traditions rather than specifically the languages. Opinion: While resource allocation is a valid concern, saving endangered languages carries immense cultural and historical value. Governments should allocate reasonable funds to document, promote, and revitalize these languages, especially when their preservation aligns with the communities' desires. Efforts can be complemented by involving linguistic experts, community leaders, and educational institutions to ensure effective and sustainable preservation strategies. Language preservation fosters diversity, strengthens cultural bonds, and enriches global understanding. As such, it is a worthy investment in safeguarding our world's linguistic heritage. 3. Nowadays, more and more foreign students are going to English-Speaking countries to learn the “international” language – English. It is undoubtedly true that studying English in an English-speaking country is the best way, but it is not the only way to learn it. Use your own knowledge and experience and support your arguments with examples and relevant evidence. The Advantages of Learning English in English-Speaking Countries: Immersion Experience: Being surrounded by native speakers provides an immersive language environment, accelerating language acquisition. Authentic Communication: Interacting with locals in real-life situations enhances practical language skills and cultural understanding. Cultural Exposure: Living in the country offers a firsthand experience of the culture, enhancing language learning through context. Diverse Learning Opportunities: English schools in these countries often provide specialized courses, language clubs, and cultural activities. Networking and International Connections: Students can build global connections, expanding opportunities for future endeavors. Other Effective Ways to Learn English: Quality Language Institutes: Renowned language institutes offer intensive and immersive language courses even outside English-speaking countries. Online Language Platforms: Numerous interactive platforms offer virtual immersion, language practice, and access to native speakers worldwide. Language Exchange Programs: Joining language exchange programs allows learners to practice with native speakers in a mutually beneficial setup. Language Meetups and Communities: Many cities have language exchange meetups and clubs for regular practice and cultural exchange. Tutoring and Language Partners: Engaging with qualified language tutors or finding language partners can facilitate personalized learning. Personal Experience and Examples: In my own language learning journey, I found immersion in an English-speaking country incredibly valuable. My time there exposed me to various regional accents and colloquialisms, which significantly improved my communication skills. Additionally, being part of a diverse community allowed me to understand different cultural nuances, making my language usage more authentic. 4. The development of tourism contributed to English becoming the most prominent language in the world. Some people think this will lead to English becoming the only language to be spoken globally. What are the advantages and disadvantages to having one language in the world? Advantages of Having One Global Language: Global Communication: A universal language facilitates seamless communication among people worldwide, promoting understanding and collaboration. Simplified Travel and Business: A common language streamlines international travel, trade, and business transactions, reducing barriers and enhancing efficiency. Enhanced Education and Research: Standardizing education in one language can enable access to a broader knowledge base and foster international academic collaborations. Cultural Exchange: A shared language allows for easier cultural exchange, appreciation, and preservation of global heritage. Easier Governance and Diplomacy: One language could simplify diplomatic relations and international policy-making. Disadvantages of Having One Global Language: Cultural Loss: Homogenization of language could lead to the erosion of diverse linguistic and cultural traditions. Linguistic Diversity Decline: The dominance of one language may lead to the extinction of lesser-spoken languages and the loss of valuable knowledge. Language Inequality: Non-native speakers might face disadvantages in global contexts, affecting opportunities and representation. Identity and Expression: Language plays a vital role in expressing individual and community identities, which could be lost in a single-language world. Potential Linguistic Imperialism: The dominance of one language might lead to cultural and linguistic imperialism, eroding local languages and traditions. Balancing Perspectives: While a global language has undeniable advantages in fostering international communication and cooperation, it is essential to strike a balance that preserves linguistic diversity and cultural richness. Efforts can be made to promote multilingualism, where individuals and societies appreciate and value their native languages while also learning a global lingua franca like English for practical purposes. Education systems can incorporate bilingual or multilingual approaches to preserve local languages while enabling global engagement. Moreover, celebrating linguistic diversity can lead to a more inclusive and culturally rich global society.

HEALTH 1. Currently there is a trend towards the use of alternative forms of medicine. However, at best these methods are ineffective, and at worst they may be dangerous. To what extent do you agree with this statement? Agree: Lack of scientific evidence: Many alternative medicine practices lack robust scientific evidence to support their efficacy. Potential risks: Some alternative treatments may have adverse effects or interact negatively with conventional medications. Delayed or inadequate treatment: Relying solely on alternative medicine could lead to delayed or insufficient treatment of serious medical conditions. Exploitation and misinformation: The lack of regulation may lead to the promotion of unproven or even fraudulent treatments. Missed opportunities for conventional medicine: Depending on alternative methods alone may overlook the benefits of proven medical interventions. Placebo effect: Some perceived benefits of alternative medicine might be attributed to the placebo effect rather than actual effectiveness. Disagree: Cultural and historical significance: Alternative medicine often has deep roots in traditional practices that have provided comfort and relief for generations. Holistic approach: Alternative medicine emphasizes holistic health, focusing on mental, emotional, and spiritual well-being, which may complement conventional medicine. Personal experiences: Some individuals report positive experiences and benefits from alternative treatments, even if they lack scientific validation. Supportive care: Certain alternative therapies can be used as complementary support for conventional medical treatments, enhancing overall well-being. Individual response: Medical treatments can vary in effectiveness depending on the individual, and some may find alternative methods more suitable. Continued research: Some alternative practices are under ongoing investigation, and research may uncover previously unknown benefits. Opinion: While some alternative forms of medicine may lack scientific evidence, blanket statements deeming them all ineffective or dangerous may be oversimplified. A balanced approach is essential, promoting evidence-based medicine while acknowledging the value of certain alternative practices for supportive care. Regulatory bodies should ensure consumer safety and accurate information about alternative treatments. Encouraging research on alternative methods can help identify potentially beneficial practices and improve patient outcomes. 2.All over the world, the number of overweight people is growing. What do you feel are the main causes of this? What are the effects? Main Causes of Increasing Overweight Population: Sedentary lifestyle: Modern advancements and technology have led to reduced physical activity levels. Unhealthy diets: Widespread availability of processed foods, sugary beverages, and fast food contributes to poor eating habits. Portion sizes: Larger portion sizes in restaurants and packaged foods can lead to overeating. Stress and emotional eating: Stressful lifestyles and emotional triggers may result in excessive consumption of comfort foods. Lack of nutritional education: Many people lack adequate knowledge about balanced diets and nutrition. Advertising and marketing: Aggressive marketing of unhealthy foods can influence consumer choices. Effects of Increasing Overweight Population: Health issues: Obesity is linked to a range of health problems, including heart disease, diabetes, and certain cancers. Reduced life expectancy: Overweight individuals may have a shorter life span due to health complications. Healthcare burden: Treating obesity-related illnesses places a strain on healthcare systems and resources. Psychological impact: Overweight individuals may face social stigma, body image issues, and reduced self-esteem. Economic impact: Obesity-related productivity loss and increased healthcare costs affect economies. Environmental impact: Food production and transportation for unhealthy diets contribute to environmental degradation. 3. Many doctors are concerned about the high use of computer games by children and young people. What mental and physical problems may arise from excessive use of these games? How could these problems be reduced? Mental Problems from Excessive Use of Computer Games: Addiction: Excessive gaming can lead to gaming addiction, resulting in impaired daily functioning and neglect of responsibilities. Social isolation: Spending excessive time on computer games may reduce real-life social interactions, leading to feelings of loneliness and isolation. Cognitive issues: Prolonged gaming may negatively impact attention span, concentration, and academic performance. Aggressive behavior: Some studies suggest a correlation between violent video games and increased aggressive tendencies. Sleep disturbances: Excessive gaming, especially before bedtime, can disrupt sleep patterns and lead to sleep deprivation. Anxiety and depression: Isolation and addiction to gaming can contribute to the development of anxiety and depressive symptoms. Physical Problems from Excessive Use of Computer Games: Sedentary lifestyle: Prolonged gaming can lead to a lack of physical activity, increasing the risk of obesity and related health issues. Musculoskeletal problems: Poor posture and repetitive movements during gaming can cause musculoskeletal disorders like back pain and carpal tunnel syndrome. Vision problems: Staring at screens for extended periods may cause digital eye strain and other visual disturbances. Sleep disturbances: As mentioned earlier, disrupted sleep patterns can have physical ramifications on overall health. Reducing Problems from Excessive Use of Computer Games: Parental involvement: Parents should actively monitor and limit their children's gaming time, encouraging a healthy balance with other activities. Setting time limits: Implementing restrictions on daily gaming hours can help prevent excessive use. Promoting physical activities: Encouraging children to engage in regular physical exercises and outdoor activities can counterbalance sedentary gaming habits. Educational gaming alternatives: Introducing educational and skill-enhancing games can provide a more constructive gaming experience. Creating tech-free zones: Designating certain areas, like bedrooms, as tech-free zones can aid in establishing healthier sleep routines. Raising awareness: Educating children, parents, and educators about the potential risks of excessive gaming can foster responsible gaming habits. Educating about responsible gaming: Schools can incorporate awareness programs on responsible gaming and digital citizenship to help young people develop a balanced approach to technology. Incorporating breaks during gaming sessions: Encouraging players to take regular breaks during extended gaming sessions can reduce the risk of physical and mental strain. Support and counseling: Providing access to mental health support and counseling for individuals experiencing gaming addiction or related issues. Game ratings and regulation: Strengthening regulations and enforcing age-appropriate game ratings can help protect younger audiences from potentially harmful content. 4. In many countries today, there are concerns about the unhealthy lifestyles that people lead. What health issues are linked to modern lifestyles? What answers to these problems can you suggest? Give reasons for your answer, and support your essay with ideas and examples from your own experience. Health Issues Linked to Modern Lifestyles: 1. Obesity and related diseases: Sedentary lifestyles, fast-food consumption, and increased screen time contribute to rising obesity rates and associated health problems like diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. 2. Mental health disorders: High stress levels, social isolation due to technology, and excessive use of social media have been linked to increased rates of anxiety and depression. 3. Cardiovascular problems: Modern lifestyles, characterized by lack of physical activity and unhealthy diets, contribute to an increased risk of heart diseases and hypertension. 4. Sleep disorders: Overuse of electronic devices and irregular sleep schedules affect sleep quality, leading to sleep disorders and fatigue-related issues. 5. Respiratory problems: Air pollution and exposure to indoor pollutants due to urbanization and technological advancements can cause respiratory diseases. 6. Nutritional deficiencies: Relying on processed and convenience foods may lead to nutrient deficiencies and poor overall health. Suggested Answers to these Problems: 1. Promote Physical Activity: · Encourage regular exercise through school programs, workplace initiatives, and community events. · Design urban spaces with walking and cycling paths to promote active transportation. · Incorporate physical activities into daily routines, such as taking stairs instead of elevators. 2. Healthy Dietary Habits: · Implement public health campaigns to raise awareness of balanced nutrition and the importance of consuming fresh, whole foods. · Introduce nutrition education in schools to empower children to make healthier food choices. · Support local farmers and markets to increase accessibility to fresh produce. 3. Mental Health Support: · Increase funding for mental health services and provide easy access to counseling and therapy. · Promote mindfulness practices, meditation, and stress reduction techniques through community workshops and workplace initiatives. · Raise awareness of the impact of social media on mental health and encourage responsible usage. 4. Sleep Hygiene: · Educate the public about the importance of consistent sleep schedules and creating a sleep-conducive environment. · Limit screen time before bedtime and encourage reading or relaxation activities instead. 5. Environmental Protection: · Enforce stricter regulations on air quality and pollution control to reduce respiratory health risks. · Invest in sustainable energy sources and promote eco-friendly practices to mitigate environmental hazards. 6. Health Education and Screen Time Management: · Incorporate health education into school curricula to teach children about balanced lifestyles and digital well-being. · Encourage individuals to set screen time limits and use productivity tools to maintain a healthy balance. Reasoning and Examples: Modern lifestyles have brought convenience and technological advancements, but they have also introduced various health challenges. For instance, my own experience living in a bustling city exposed me to air pollution, which led to respiratory issues. However, through increased awareness and government initiatives, air quality improved, and health risks decreased. Similarly, as technology evolved, I observed the detrimental effects of excessive screen time on mental well-being, both in myself and others. Implementing screen time management and mindfulness practices significantly improved my focus and reduced stress. In conclusion, addressing the health issues linked to modern lifestyles requires a multifaceted approach involving education, public awareness campaigns, environmental protection, and promoting healthier habits. By collectively working towards these solutions, societies can mitigate the negative impacts of modern living and improve overall well-being. 5. Some people say that the best way to improve public health is to increase the number of sports facilities. Others, however, say that this would have little effect on public health and that other measures are required. Discuss both these views and give your own opinion. Support for Increasing Sports Facilities: · Physical Activity Promotion: More sports facilities can encourage people to engage in regular physical activity, improving cardiovascular health and reducing obesity rates. · Accessible Fitness: Increased facilities offer more opportunities for individuals of all ages and backgrounds to participate in sports and fitness activities. · Community Engagement: Sports facilities can become hubs for community gatherings, fostering social connections and mental well-being. · Preventive Approach: Regular exercise can help prevent various chronic diseases, leading to long-term improvements in public health. · Youth Development: Sports facilities provide a platform for youth to develop skills, teamwork, and discipline, positively impacting their physical and mental growth. Arguments for Alternative Measures: · Health Education: Focusing on health education can raise awareness of healthy lifestyle choices, leading to behavioral changes beyond sports participation. · Dietary Improvement: Addressing nutrition and promoting healthier eating habits is crucial in combating obesity and related health issues. · Urban Planning: Creating walkable neighborhoods, green spaces, and bike-friendly infrastructure can encourage active transportation and physical activity. · Mental Health Support: Investing in mental health services and counseling can address stress-related health issues that sports alone may not fully alleviate. · Public Policies: Implementing policies like sugar taxes, smoking bans, and regulations on unhealthy food marketing can target the root causes of public health problems. Balanced Approach: A balanced approach that combines increasing sports facilities with other measures can be more effective in improving public health. While sports facilities encourage physical activity, they may not address all aspects of health issues comprehensively. A multifaceted strategy should encompass health education, urban planning, mental health support, and policies targeting unhealthy behaviors and environmental factors. Example: Consider a city with limited sports facilities but an excellent health education program and healthy food initiatives. The population may be well-informed about healthy choices and have access to nutritious foods. However, without enough sports facilities, opportunities for physical activity may be restricted. By increasing sports facilities in this scenario, the city can create a comprehensive approach, providing both knowledge and access to regular physical activity, thus achieving a more significant impact on public health. Conclusion: While increasing sports facilities can undoubtedly play a crucial role in improving public health, it should be seen as one part of a broader strategy. Combining various measures, including health education, dietary improvement, urban planning, mental health support, and public policies, can create a more holistic approach to enhancing the overall well-being of the population. 6. Many office authorities impose restriction on smoking within the offices premises. Some governments have even banned smoking in all public places. This is a good idea but it takes away some of our freedom. What are your opinions on this? Use your own knowledge and experience and support your arguments with examples and relevant evidence. Arguments in favor of smoking restrictions: · Health benefits: Reduced exposure to secondhand smoke improves air quality and protects non-smokers from health hazards. · Productivity boost: Smoke-free environments can enhance employee focus and efficiency. · Cost savings: Fewer smoking-related illnesses lead to decreased healthcare expenses for individuals and governments. · Social responsibility: Encourages a healthier society and shows concern for public well-being. · Creating a norm: Establishes a culture of health consciousness and discourages smoking initiation. · International precedents: Many countries have successfully implemented smoking bans with positive outcomes. Arguments against smoking restrictions: · Personal freedom: Smoking is a personal choice, and restrictions infringe on individual autonomy. · Workplace morale: Smokers may feel alienated or demotivated due to limited smoking breaks. · Rights of property owners: Office authorities should have the right to determine smoking policies within their premises. · Nanny state: Some argue that excessive regulations limit personal responsibility and self-governance. · Economic impact: The tobacco industry and businesses related to smoking may suffer financially. · Individual responsibility: Adults should be allowed to make their own decisions, even if they carry risks. Opinion: While smoking restrictions have undeniable health benefits and promote a cleaner environment, it is essential to strike a balance between public health and personal freedom. Regulations should be fair and considerate of individual rights, while also safeguarding the well-being of non-smokers. For example, designated smoking areas could provide a compromise, allowing smokers to exercise their choice without negatively impacting others. Ultimately, a combination of education, awareness, and reasonable regulations can lead to a healthier society that respects individual liberties. 7. In the developed world, average life expectancy is increasing. What problems will this cause for individuals and society? Suggest some measures that could be taken to reduce the impact of ageing populations. Problems Caused by Increasing Life Expectancy: For Individuals: Financial Strain: Longer lifespans may lead to insufficient retirement savings and financial insecurity. Health Issues: Increased risk of age-related diseases and chronic health conditions. Social Isolation: Loss of friends and family can lead to loneliness and mental health issues. For Society: Pension and Healthcare Burden: Aging populations strain pension and healthcare systems. Labor Force Shortage: Decreasing working-age population affects productivity and economic growth. Elderly Care Demands: Increased need for specialized elderly care facilities and services. Measures to Reduce Impact of Ageing Populations: For Individuals: Financial Planning Education: Encouraging better retirement savings and investment strategies. Healthy Lifestyle Promotion: Public health campaigns for better aging and disease prevention. Social Support Programs: Initiatives to combat isolation, such as community centers and volunteer opportunities. For Society: Raising Retirement Age: Gradually increasing retirement age to support pension systems. Incentivizing Birth Rates: Encouraging family planning and policies to boost birth rates. Investing in Healthcare Infrastructure: Expanding healthcare facilities and services for elderly care. 8.The growing number of overweight people is putting a strain on the health care system in an effort to deal with the health issues involved. Some people think that the best way to deal with this problem is to introduce more physical education lessons in the school curriculum. To what extent do you agree or disagree? Agree: Promoting Healthy Habits: Introducing more physical education lessons in schools can instill healthy habits from a young age, encouraging regular exercise and fitness. Preventive Approach: Physical education can help prevent obesity and related health issues, reducing the burden on the healthcare system in the long run. Lifelong Impact: Teaching children about the importance of physical activity can lead to healthier lifestyles throughout adulthood, contributing to overall well-being. Disagree: Complex Issue: Addressing obesity requires a multifaceted approach involving dietary choices, lifestyle, and community support, not solely reliant on physical education in schools. Resource Allocation: Adding more physical education lessons may strain school resources and time, impacting other important subjects in the curriculum. Parental Responsibility: Health education should start at home, and parents play a crucial role in promoting healthy behaviors, including physical activity. Opinion (Balanced View): Introducing more physical education lessons can be beneficial, but it should not be the sole solution to tackle the growing obesity issue. A comprehensive approach involving schools, parents, and communities is essential to address this problem effectively. Physical education in schools should be complemented with nutrition education and initiatives to promote healthy eating habits.

GOVERNMENT 1. Some People think that the government is wasting money on the arts and that this money could be better spent elsewhere. To what extent do you agree or disagree? Agree - Government wasting money on the arts: Funding priorities: Funds could be redirected to urgent social welfare programs and infrastructure development. Private sponsorship: Encourage private sector involvement to support the arts, relieving the burden on public funds. Economic impact: Arts funding may not yield direct economic returns compared to investments in other sectors. Limited audience: Arts may cater to a niche audience, while other areas benefit the broader population. Opportunity cost: Money spent on the arts means potential sacrifices in essential services. Budget deficit: Diverting funds to the arts might exacerbate existing budgetary imbalances. Disagree - Importance of arts funding: Cultural enrichment: Arts contribute to a nation's cultural identity and preservation of traditions. Creative industries: Arts investments can foster thriving creative sectors and boost employment opportunities. Tourism attraction: Cultural events and artistic expressions attract tourists, stimulating the economy. Education and expression: Arts promote critical thinking, creativity, and emotional expression in society. Social cohesion: Artistic endeavors encourage unity and understanding among diverse communities. Soft power and international relations: Supporting the arts enhances a country's global influence and reputation. Opinion: I partially agree with the argument that the government could allocate funds more efficiently; however, I firmly believe that arts funding is crucial for cultural preservation, economic growth, and social development. Striking a balance between supporting the arts and addressing other societal needs is essential for a holistic approach to governance. 2. Some people think governments should take measures to improve the health of its citizens. Others think it must be managed by individuals. Discuss both sides and give your opinion. Government-led health measures: Public health initiatives: Governments can implement widespread programs such as vaccination drives, disease prevention campaigns, and health education to improve overall well-being. Healthcare infrastructure: Investing in healthcare facilities, hospitals, and medical research can enhance the nation's health system. Regulations and policies: Governments can enforce regulations on food safety, environmental standards, and healthcare access to protect citizens' health. Equitable healthcare: State intervention ensures that healthcare is accessible and affordable for all citizens, reducing disparities in health outcomes. Crisis management: Governments play a crucial role in handling pandemics and emergencies, coordinating responses and allocating resources. Individual responsibility for health: Personal choices: Individuals should adopt healthier lifestyles, including balanced diets, exercise, and avoiding harmful habits like smoking and excessive drinking. Self-care and prevention: Taking preventive measures like regular health check-ups and early intervention can lead to better health outcomes. Health literacy: Promoting health education empowers individuals to make informed decisions about their well-being. Reduced burden on healthcare system: Individuals taking responsibility for their health can lessen the strain on public healthcare resources. Autonomy and freedom: Some argue that individuals should have the freedom to make their health choices without excessive government intervention. Opinion: Both perspectives hold merit, and a balanced approach is necessary. Governments should indeed take measures to improve the health of citizens by providing essential healthcare infrastructure, promoting public health initiatives, and enforcing regulations. However, individual responsibility is equally vital. Encouraging health literacy, promoting healthy lifestyles, and fostering a sense of ownership over personal well-being empower citizens to take charge of their health. A collaborative effort between individuals and the government can create a healthier society, with shared responsibilities towards public well-being. 3. Few people devote time to hobbies nowadays. Why you think this is the case and what effect this has on the individual and society in general. Reasons for declining time devoted to hobbies: Busy lifestyles: Modern life is often hectic, with demanding work schedules and personal commitments, leaving little time for leisure activities. Digital distractions: The prevalence of smartphones, social media, and online entertainment can consume leisure time, reducing engagement in hobbies. Work-life balance: Struggling to balance work and personal life can result in limited free time for pursuing hobbies. Changing priorities: People may prioritize other activities like socializing, travel, or career advancement over hobbies. Financial constraints: Some hobbies can be expensive, making them inaccessible to individuals facing financial challenges. Effects on individuals: Stress and burnout: Without hobbies, individuals may experience higher stress levels and burnout from continuous work and responsibilities. Reduced creativity and fulfillment: Hobbies often provide outlets for creative expression and personal fulfillment, which may be lacking in other aspects of life. Mental health impact: Engaging in hobbies can have positive effects on mental well-being, and their absence may contribute to feelings of emptiness or dissatisfaction. Social isolation: Hobbies often involve social interactions, and without them, individuals may become more socially isolated. Unhealthy coping mechanisms: In the absence of productive hobbies, individuals might turn to unhealthy coping mechanisms to deal with stress and boredom. Effects on society: Decreased social cohesion: Hobbies bring people together with shared interests, and a decline in such activities could weaken community bonds. Impact on creativity and innovation: Fewer hobbies may stifle creativity and innovation in society, as hobbies often inspire new ideas and skills. Healthcare implications: With fewer people engaging in physically active hobbies, there could be potential implications for public health and well-being. Economic impact: Hobbies can drive various industries, and reduced participation may affect related businesses and employment. Cultural preservation: Hobbies related to traditional arts and crafts play a role in preserving cultural heritage, which could be at risk if they decline. Conclusion: The decline in the time devoted to hobbies can have detrimental effects on both individuals and society at large. It is essential to recognize the value of leisure activities and create a balanced lifestyle that allows for the pursuit of hobbies. Encouraging the importance of hobbies and providing support for individuals to engage in them can lead to a healthier, more fulfilled, and socially connected society. 4.Differences between countries are becoming less. Nowadays people all over the world are adopting similar fashion and trends. Do you think disadvantages outweigh the advantages? Advantages of Global Fashion and Trends: Cultural exchange and diversity appreciation. Increased global connectivity and understanding. Boost to international trade and economy. Access to a wide variety of choices for consumers. Fosters a sense of global community and unity. Promotes creativity and innovation in the fashion industry. Disadvantages of Global Fashion and Trends: Loss of cultural identity and traditional practices. Environmental impact from fast fashion and excessive consumption. Homogenization of fashion, leading to lack of uniqueness. Exploitation of labor in developing countries. Negative body image and pressure to conform. Risk of cultural appropriation and misrepresentation. Opinion: In my opinion, while there are evident benefits to the global adoption of fashion and trends, the disadvantages do outweigh the advantages. The negative impact on cultural diversity, environment, and social well-being should be addressed through sustainable practices and respect for individual cultures. 4. Differences between countries are becoming less. Nowadays people all over the world are adopting similar fashion and trends. Do you think disadvantages outweigh the advantages? Advantages of Reduced Differences and Global Fashion: Enhanced cultural exchange and understanding. Promotes a sense of unity and global community. Facilitates easier communication and collaboration. Simplifies international travel and relocation. Boosts international trade and economic cooperation. Fosters peace and reduces ethnocentrism. Disadvantages of Reduced Differences and Global Fashion: Loss of cultural uniqueness and identity. Erosion of traditional values and practices. Threat to indigenous industries and crafts. Environmental impact from mass production and consumption. Homogenization of cultures and loss of diversity. Potential spread of harmful trends or ideologies. Opinion: In my opinion, the disadvantages of reduced cultural differences and global fashion do outweigh the advantages. While global connectivity is valuable, preserving cultural diversity and addressing the negative consequences of mass consumption should be prioritized. Striking a balance between embracing global influences and safeguarding individual cultures is crucial for a more sustainable and culturally rich world. 6. "Should Government be responsible for providing pure drinking water to all or should the people obtain their own water?" Government Responsibility for Pure Drinking Water: Ensures equitable access to clean water for all citizens. Reduces health risks and waterborne diseases. Provides a basic human right and improves public health. Allows for centralized water quality monitoring and regulation. Helps vulnerable communities with limited resources. Individual Responsibility for Obtaining Water: Encourages water conservation and responsible usage. Promotes self-sufficiency and personal accountability. Relieves burden on government resources and budget. Allows for diverse water sources to meet specific needs. Provides an opportunity for innovation in water collection and purification. Opinion: In my opinion, the government should take the primary responsibility for providing pure drinking water to all citizens. Access to clean water is a fundamental human right, and ensuring it is essential for public health and well-being. While individuals can play a role in water conservation and responsible usage, it is the government's duty to establish and maintain adequate infrastructure to meet the water needs of the entire population. Collaboration between the government, private sector, and individuals can lead to more efficient and sustainable water management systems. 7. Some people think that governments should give financial support to creative artists such as painters and musicians. Others believe that creative artists should be funded by alternative sources. Discuss both views and give your own opinion. Financial Support by Governments: · Cultural preservation: Governments have a responsibility to preserve and promote cultural heritage through funding artists. · Artistic freedom: State support allows artists to pursue creative endeavors without commercial pressures. · National identity: Government funding can nurture art that reflects and celebrates the nation's identity. · Access to art: Financial aid ensures art remains accessible to the public, fostering appreciation. · Economic impact: Art industries contribute to the economy; government support can boost this sector. · Social enrichment: Government funding of art encourages a more vibrant and enriched society. Funding by Alternative Sources: · Private patronage: Encouraging private individuals and corporations to support artists. · Art grants and scholarships: Establishing programs to assist artists without direct government intervention. · Crowdfunding: Emphasizing the role of the public in supporting artists they appreciate. · Art collaborations: Encouraging partnerships between artists and businesses for mutual benefit. · Art sales and exhibitions: Promoting self-sustainability by generating income through sales and shows. · Art foundations: Creating non-profit organizations to fund various artistic projects. Opinion (Supporting Government Financial Support): · Cultural preservation: Governments play a crucial role in safeguarding cultural heritage. · Equal opportunity: Public funding ensures access and support for artists from diverse backgrounds. · Long-term commitment: Government support offers stability and consistency for artists. · National representation: State-backed art can represent the nation's unique perspectives. · Economic significance: Art contributes to the economy, justifying government investment. · Social impact: Publicly funded art enriches society, inspiring creativity and emotional expression. 8. In many cities the use of video cameras in public places is being increased in order to reduce crime, but some people believe that these measures restrict our individual freedom. Do the benefits of increased security outweigh the drawbacks? Benefits of Increased Security: · Crime prevention: Video cameras act as deterrents and reduce criminal activities in public areas. · Evidence collection: Cameras provide valuable evidence for law enforcement to solve crimes. · Public safety: Increased security fosters a sense of security and reassurance among the public. · Efficient law enforcement: Cameras help law enforcement respond quickly to incidents. · Crowd management: Video surveillance aids in managing large gatherings and events. · Reduced costs: Preventing crime can save money spent on investigations and damage control. Drawbacks of Increased Security: · Privacy concerns: Surveillance infringes on individuals' right to privacy in public spaces. · Misuse of data: There's potential for misuse or unauthorized access to surveillance data. · Psychological impact: Constant monitoring can create a feeling of being constantly watched. · False sense of security: Relying solely on cameras might neglect other crime prevention strategies. · Technical limitations: Cameras may not always capture incidents clearly or prevent all crimes. · Over-policing: Surveillance can lead to increased scrutiny of certain communities. Opinion (Balancing Benefits and Drawbacks): · Enhanced security: Increased surveillance can lead to a safer environment for citizens. · Responsibly managed: Effective policies can protect privacy and prevent data misuse. · Complementary measures: Cameras should complement other crime prevention strategies. · Transparency: Public should be informed about surveillance usage and its effectiveness. · Regular reviews: Periodic evaluations can assess the impact and necessity of surveillance. · Striking a balance: Balancing security and individual freedom is essential for a just society. Note: In your essay, remember to elaborate on each point and support your opinion with reasoned arguments and examples.

1. Did you enjoy your childhood? Response (Band 9): Absolutely, my childhood was a cherished chapter of my life that I look back upon fondly. It was a carefree time filled with innocence and wonder, where I had the freedom to explore and cultivate my interests. 2. What is your first memory of your childhood? Response (Band 9): My earliest memory from childhood is of a vibrant summer day, where I gleefully chased colorful butterflies in the fragrant meadows near my grandparents' countryside home. The sight of those delicate creatures fluttering amidst the wildflowers left an indelible impression on my young mind. 3. Did you have a lot of friends when you were a child? Response (Band 9): Indeed, I was fortunate to have a robust circle of friends during my childhood. We were inseparable, and our camaraderie forged through countless adventures and mischievous escapades remains etched in my heart. 4. What did you enjoy doing as a child? Response (Band 9): As a child, I delighted in exploring the vast realms of my imagination through reading enchanting books. The magical worlds they unveiled fascinated me, allowing me to escape reality momentarily and indulge in flights of fantasy. 5. Do you think it is better for children to grow up in the city or in the countryside? Response (Band 9): This is a topic that elicits varying perspectives, but I believe that both the city and countryside offer unique opportunities for a child's growth and development. Growing up in the city exposes children to diverse cultures, educational resources, and a myriad of experiences that foster adaptability and resilience. On the other hand, the countryside presents a serene environment conducive to a deep connection with nature, nurturing a profound appreciation for the natural world. Ultimately, the nurturing environment, supportive family, and opportunities for exploration matter more than the specific location of a child's upbringing. 6. How did you balance your academic commitments with extracurricular activities during your school years? Response (Band 9): Balancing academic commitments with extracurricular activities was a rewarding challenge during my school years. I harnessed effective time management techniques to allocate dedicated time for studies while reserving moments for engaging in various extracurricular pursuits. This balance not only enriched my overall learning experience but also honed valuable skills like multitasking and prioritization. 7. Have you ever encountered a subject that you found particularly challenging? How did you overcome the difficulties? Response (Band 9): Yes, advanced calculus was a subject that initially posed a considerable challenge. To overcome the difficulties, I sought additional guidance from my teachers and collaborated with study groups to clarify concepts. Moreover, I practiced diligently, solving numerous problems and gradually gaining a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Embracing the mindset that struggles are an essential part of the learning process empowered me to persevere and eventually excel in the subject. 8. Describe a time when you were praised or recognized for your academic achievements. How did it make you feel? Response (Band 9): I vividly recall a moment during a school assembly when I was recognized with an academic award for outstanding performance in mathematics. The sense of pride and validation was overwhelming, as it reaffirmed the effort I had invested in my studies. This recognition not only boosted my confidence but also served as a motivating factor to strive for excellence in all academic endeavors. 9. How do you think the education system could be improved to better support students' overall development? Response (Band 9): To better support students' overall development, the education system could adopt a more holistic approach that values creativity, critical thinking, and emotional intelligence alongside academic excellence. Encouraging project-based learning, fostering a growth mindset, and providing ample opportunities for exploration beyond the curriculum would empower students to discover their passions and talents. Additionally, investing in comprehensive mental health programs and personalized support for struggling students would create a nurturing environment conducive to their well-being and success. 10. Have you ever had a teacher who significantly influenced your approach to studying or your perspective on a particular subject? Response (Band 9): Indeed, I had an exceptional English teacher who profoundly influenced my approach to studying and my perspective on literature. Through their passion for the subject and engaging teaching methods, they instilled a love for reading and writing in me. Their encouragement to delve deeper into literary themes and explore various writing styles broadened my horizons and solidified my appreciation for the power of language. 11. How do you deal with academic stress or exam pressure? Response (Band 9): Dealing with academic stress and exam pressure involves adopting a balanced approach. Regular study breaks and physical exercises help alleviate stress and recharge my mind. Employing relaxation techniques like mindfulness and deep breathing also aid in maintaining a focused and composed mindset during intense study sessions and examinations. 12. In your opinion, what role does technology play in modern education, and how has it influenced your learning experience? Response (Band 9): Technology plays a transformative role in modern education, revolutionizing the way we learn and access information. Digital tools and online resources provide limitless opportunities for research, collaborative learning, and accessing educational content from across the globe. Embracing technology has enriched my learning experience by enabling me to explore diverse perspectives, participate in virtual classrooms, and engage with interactive educational platforms that cater to individual learning styles. 13. Describe a particularly memorable project or research paper you worked on. What made it stand out from others? Response (Band 9): One particularly memorable project was a research paper on sustainable urban planning. What made it stand out was the scope and significance of the topic, addressing real-world challenges in city development. I delved into various case studies and innovative approaches, exploring cutting-edge technologies and design principles. The project's potential impact on urban communities and the environment fueled my passion and dedication to produce a comprehensive and forward-thinking paper. 14. How do you ensure your study habits remain consistent and effective over time? Response (Band 9): To maintain consistent and effective study habits, I cultivate discipline and self-motivation. Creating a well-structured study schedule with designated study periods helps me adhere to a routine. Regular self-assessment and setting achievable goals enable me to track progress and stay on track. Moreover, seeking support from study partners or mentors fosters accountability and reinforces my commitment to continuous learning. 15. If you could go back in time, what advice would you give your younger self about studying and education? Response (Band 9): If I could go back in time, I would advise my younger self to embrace a growth mindset and view challenges as opportunities for growth. Understanding that failures are stepping stones to success would have alleviated unnecessary pressure and anxiety. Moreover, I would encourage myself to explore diverse subjects and seize every chance to learn beyond the classroom, as holistic knowledge enriches one's perspective and personal development.

1. Do you usually celebrate your birthdays? Response (Band 9): Indeed, I make it a point to celebrate my birthdays every year. Marking this special occasion with loved ones and cherishing moments of joy is a meaningful way to appreciate the passing of another year and reflect on personal growth. 2. How did you celebrate your last birthday? Response (Band 9): My last birthday was an unforgettable celebration filled with cherished memories. I decided to organize a small gathering at my favorite restaurant, inviting close friends and family. We indulged in a delectable feast, exchanged laughter, and engaged in heartfelt conversations, creating a warm and intimate atmosphere. The day concluded with cutting a scrumptious birthday cake and exchanging heartfelt well-wishes, making it a truly special experience. 3. Which birthdays are the most important ones in your country? Response (Band 9): In my country, certain birthdays hold significant importance in a person's life. The 18th birthday is considered a milestone as it marks the transition to adulthood and is often celebrated with much fanfare. Additionally, the 21st birthday is noteworthy, symbolizing legal adulthood and often accompanied by parties and gatherings. 4. Do you think children should celebrate their birthdays with a party? Response (Band 9): Absolutely! Celebrating children's birthdays with a party is a delightful way to foster joy, create lasting memories, and nurture a sense of belonging. Birthday parties offer an opportunity for children to feel special, surrounded by friends and family who shower them with affection and gifts. Additionally, parties provide a setting for social interactions and play, promoting social skills and emotional development. 5. Are there any unique birthday traditions or customs in your culture? Response (Band 9): In my culture, birthdays are often marked with special traditions and customs. For instance, family and friends gather to sing a traditional birthday song, followed by the ceremonial blowing of candles on a birthday cake. Additionally, the celebrant may receive symbolic gifts or blessings from elders, signifying well-wishes for a prosperous year ahead. 6. How do you feel about getting older each year? Response (Band 9): Embracing the process of getting older each year comes with a mix of emotions. On one hand, I appreciate the wisdom and experiences gained with age, along with the opportunity for personal growth and self-discovery. However, it's natural to contemplate the passing of time and acknowledge the importance of cherishing each moment as life progresses. 7. Have you ever celebrated a birthday in a different country or culture? Response (Band 9): Indeed, I had the privilege of celebrating a birthday in a different country and experiencing their unique customs. It was a remarkable experience, as the cultural nuances and traditions added a fascinating layer of richness to the celebration. Immersing myself in a new setting allowed me to appreciate the diversity of birthday celebrations worldwide. 8. How do you think technology has influenced the way people celebrate birthdays nowadays? Response (Band 9): Technology has undeniably revolutionized the way people celebrate birthdays in contemporary times. Social media platforms allow for virtual birthday greetings from friends and acquaintances across the globe. Moreover, video calls and live streams enable loved ones who cannot be physically present to participate in the celebration virtually. Digital invitations, interactive e-cards, and personalized photo collages have also become popular, adding a modern touch to birthday festivities. 9. What's the best birthday gift you've ever received? Response (Band 9): The best birthday gift I've ever received was a surprise vacation to a dream destination from my close friends. Their thoughtful gesture left me speechless and created memories that will be etched in my heart forever. The joy of exploring new places and sharing that experience with loved ones made it an unforgettable birthday. 10. Do you think the significance of birthdays changes as people grow older? Response (Band 9): As people grow older, the significance of birthdays may undergo a transformation. In childhood, birthdays are eagerly anticipated as opportunities for fun, gifts, and attention. However, as individuals mature, birthdays often become moments of reflection, gratitude, and a chance to celebrate life's milestones. Instead of emphasizing material gifts, the focus might shift towards spending quality time with loved ones and appreciating life's blessings. 11. In your opinion, is it better to have a big birthday celebration or a more intimate gathering? Response (Band 9): The preference for a big birthday celebration or an intimate gathering is subjective and depends on individual preferences. Some may relish the excitement and grandeur of a big celebration, surrounded by numerous friends and family. Others might prefer a more intimate gathering, where they can share meaningful moments with a select few. Ultimately, what matters most is the sincerity and love shared during the celebration, regardless of its scale. 12. Have you ever attended a surprise birthday party, or have you organized one for someone else? Response (Band 9): Yes, I've had the delightful experience of attending a surprise birthday party for a close friend. The elaborate planning and the sheer element of surprise made it a memorable occasion. Similarly, I've organized surprise birthday parties for loved ones, which brought immense joy and appreciation, knowing that the effort brought happiness to their special day. 13. Do you believe that birthdays have become overly commercialized in today's society? Response (Band 9): In some aspects, birthdays have indeed become somewhat commercialized in modern society. The prevalence of elaborate birthday parties, extravagant gifts, and the pressure to conform to social media trends can overshadow the true essence of celebrating a birthday. However, it is essential to remember that the core of a birthday celebration lies in expressing genuine love and appreciation for the individual, rather than the material aspects. 14. How do you think the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted birthday celebrations? Response (Band 9): The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted birthday celebrations, necessitating creative adaptations to maintain social distancing. Many people turned to virtual celebrations, organizing online parties, and video calls to connect with friends and family. Physical gatherings became more intimate, with an emphasis on safety measures and smaller guest lists. Despite the challenges, the pandemic also fostered a sense of gratitude for the meaningful connections shared during birthdays, emphasizing the value of cherished moments with loved ones.

1. Do you have a bike? Response (Band 9): Absolutely! I am a proud owner of a sleek, high-performance mountain bike that has become my faithful companion for commuting and recreational adventures alike. 2. How often do you use it? Response (Band 9): I make it a point to hop on my bike regularly, typically utilizing it for my daily commute to work or nearby errands. On weekends, I relish the opportunity to embark on exhilarating cycling expeditions through scenic trails or picturesque countryside routes. 3. How old were you when you learned to ride a bike? Response (Band 9): I vividly recall the momentous day when I acquired the quintessential skill of bike riding. I was a mere five years old, and with unwavering determination and my father's gentle guidance, I set off on my two-wheeled adventure, conquering the art of balance and pedaling with sheer joy. 4. Do many people in your country use bicycles? Response (Band 9): Indeed, in my country, bicycles have garnered a steadfast following and serve as a popular mode of transportation, especially in urban areas and eco-conscious communities. With increasing emphasis on sustainable travel options and efforts to reduce carbon emissions, bicycles have witnessed a resurgence in popularity. 5. Do you think using bicycles should be encouraged? Response (Band 9): Absolutely, encouraging the use of bicycles is of paramount importance in promoting sustainable living and combatting environmental challenges. Embracing cycling not only reduces traffic congestion but also fosters a healthier lifestyle, benefiting both individuals and the planet. Governments and communities should actively invest in cycling infrastructure, such as dedicated lanes and bike-sharing programs, to incentivize more people to opt for this eco-friendly mode of transport. As the saying goes, "Every journey begins with a single pedal stroke," and collectively, we can pave the way towards a greener and more sustainable future. 6. Have you ever participated in any cycling events or races? Response (Band 9): Yes, I've had the exhilarating experience of participating in a few cycling events and races. The camaraderie among fellow cyclists and the rush of adrenaline as we tackled challenging routes together created unforgettable memories. Such events not only promote a sense of community but also inspire individuals to improve their cycling prowess. 7. How do you ensure your bike remains in good condition? Response (Band 9): Maintaining my bike in peak condition is crucial to ensure smooth rides and longevity. Regularly, I carry out meticulous checks, such as inspecting tire pressure, lubricating the chain, and adjusting brakes. Moreover, I take my bike to a professional mechanic for periodic tune-ups and repairs, adhering to the adage "a stitch in time saves nine." 8. What are the benefits of using bicycles as a means of transportation? Response (Band 9): Utilizing bicycles as a means of transportation confers a plethora of benefits. Beyond the evident environmental advantages of reduced carbon emissions, cycling improves physical fitness and overall health. Moreover, it mitigates traffic congestion, saves on fuel costs, and offers a more immersive experience of the surroundings during the commute, allowing individuals to revel in the beauty of their city or countryside. 9. Are there any safety concerns associated with cycling in your area? Response (Band 9): While cycling in my area is generally safe, there are a few safety concerns to consider. The lack of dedicated cycling lanes in some places and a few reckless drivers pose potential risks. To address these concerns, I remain vigilant on the road, wear proper safety gear, and ensure my bike is equipped with reflectors and lights for enhanced visibility during low-light conditions. 10. Do you think schools should encourage cycling among students? Response (Band 9): Absolutely, schools should actively encourage cycling among students. Promoting cycling not only supports environmental awareness but also fosters a healthy lifestyle from an early age. Introducing cycling programs and organizing cycling events at schools can instill a sense of responsibility towards the environment and promote physical activity among students, benefiting their overall well-being. 11. Have you ever taken a long-distance cycling trip? Response (Band 9): Indeed, I've had the pleasure of embarking on a memorable long-distance cycling trip. Cycling through picturesque countryside landscapes, quaint villages, and scenic coastal routes provided an unforgettable adventure, fostering a deep appreciation for nature's beauty and the joy of slow travel. 12. How would you encourage someone who has never cycled before to give it a try? Response (Band 9): Encouraging someone new to cycling involves highlighting the numerous rewards it brings. I would emphasize the freedom and exhilaration of riding a bike, the sense of empowerment gained from conquering new challenges, and the opportunity to connect with nature on two wheels. Sharing my personal experiences and offering to accompany them on a leisurely cycling trip could help dispel any apprehensions and ignite their passion for this rewarding activity. 13. Do you believe cycling can have a positive impact on mental well-being? Response (Band 9): Absolutely, cycling exerts a profoundly positive impact on mental well-being. Beyond the physical benefits, cycling provides an avenue to clear the mind, de-stress, and escape the fast-paced urban hustle. The rhythm of pedaling, coupled with the opportunity to immerse oneself in the surroundings, promotes mindfulness and serves as a therapeutic outlet. 14. In your opinion, how can governments further encourage cycling as a sustainable transportation option? Response (Band 9): Governments can play a pivotal role in promoting cycling by investing in cycling infrastructure, establishing dedicated bike lanes, and ensuring bicycle-friendly urban planning. Offering incentives, such as tax benefits for cyclists, subsidizing bicycle purchases, and providing access to affordable bike-sharing schemes, could also encourage more people to opt for cycling. Raising awareness about the environmental and health benefits of cycling through public campaigns can further reinforce the importance of this sustainable mode of transportation. 15. How does cycling contribute to building a sense of community and social connections? Response (Band 9): Cycling serves as a conduit for building a sense of community and social connections. Participating in group rides and cycling events fosters camaraderie among cyclists, forging meaningful connections and shared experiences. Moreover, encountering fellow cyclists during daily commutes provides opportunities for spontaneous interactions and exchanges, reinforcing the notion of a cohesive cycling community.

1. What is your job? Response (Band 9): I currently work as a digital marketing strategist for a prominent e-commerce company. As a digital marketing strategist, my primary responsibility is to develop and execute innovative online marketing campaigns, leveraging various platforms to enhance brand visibility and drive customer engagement. 2. Where do you work? Response (Band 9): I work at the headquarters of the e-commerce company, which is situated in the bustling commercial district of the city. The dynamic environment fosters creativity and collaboration, which are essential elements in the rapidly evolving digital landscape. 3. Why did you choose that job? Response (Band 9): I was drawn to the field of digital marketing due to its dynamic nature and transformative impact on the business landscape. With a passion for technology and an innate flair for strategic thinking, I saw this job as an ideal platform to amalgamate my interests and skill set. Moreover, the potential to contribute to the company's growth and play a vital role in shaping online consumer behavior resonated deeply with my professional aspirations. 4. Is it a popular job in your country? Response (Band 9): Undoubtedly, digital marketing has surged in popularity in recent years within my country. As businesses increasingly recognize the significance of a strong online presence, the demand for skilled digital marketing professionals has skyrocketed. This career path now attracts a diverse pool of talented individuals seeking to capitalize on the ever-expanding opportunities in the digital realm. 5. Do you like your job? Response (Band 9): I absolutely relish my job; it's an unparalleled source of fulfillment. The fast-paced and ever-changing landscape of digital marketing keeps me motivated and challenges me to think outside the box consistently. Being part of a dynamic team that embraces innovation and creativity fosters a positive work environment, allowing me to thrive professionally and personally. 6. Do you get on well with your colleagues? Response (Band 9): Fortunately, I get along famously with my colleagues. We share a mutual respect for each other's expertise, and our camaraderie facilitates seamless collaboration on projects. Moreover, we celebrate each other's successes, creating a supportive and cohesive work environment. 7. What was your first day like? Response (Band 9): Ah, my first day was quite memorable! Nerves and excitement danced together as I stepped into the vibrant office space. Welcoming smiles and warm introductions from my new colleagues immediately put me at ease. While there was a plethora of information to absorb, their helpful guidance made the transition smooth and enjoyable. 8. What responsibilities do you have at work? Response (Band 9): As a digital marketing strategist, I bear the responsibility of developing comprehensive marketing strategies tailored to the company's objectives. This involves conducting market research, identifying target audiences, and devising innovative online campaigns. Additionally, I oversee the performance of these initiatives, analyzing data and making data-driven adjustments to optimize results continually. 9. If you had the chance, would you change your job? Response (Band 9): As of now, I'm thoroughly content with my job, and I wouldn't envision altering my career path. Digital marketing aligns perfectly with my passions and offers an ever-evolving platform for personal and professional growth. 10. Do you plan to continue with your job in the future? Response (Band 9): Absolutely, I envision a long and prosperous journey within the realm of digital marketing. The field's constant evolution and the opportunity to make a tangible impact on the company's success fuel my determination to remain devoted to this rewarding career path. 11. How do you stay up-to-date with the latest trends and developments in your industry? Response (Band 9): Staying abreast of the latest trends and developments in the fast-paced world of digital marketing is of paramount importance to me. To achieve this, I regularly attend industry conferences, webinars, and workshops conducted by renowned experts. Subscribing to industry-leading publications and following influential thought leaders on social media also provide invaluable insights and updates. Additionally, collaborating with fellow professionals in the field and engaging in knowledge-sharing forums keeps me well-informed and attuned to the cutting-edge practices. 12. Can you describe a particularly challenging project or campaign you worked on recently, and how did you overcome the hurdles? Response (Band 9): Recently, I undertook a particularly challenging marketing campaign targeting a niche audience. The obstacles included a limited budget, intense competition, and an uncertain market response. To overcome these hurdles, I meticulously crafted a data-driven approach, focusing on micro-targeting and personalized content. I leveraged influencers to amplify the message and cultivated partnerships to extend our reach. Despite the initial challenges, the campaign's success was immensely gratifying, underscoring the importance of resourcefulness and adaptability in achieving marketing objectives. 13. In your opinion, what are the key skills and qualities that make a successful digital marketer? Response (Band 9): A successful digital marketer must possess a versatile skill set and several key qualities. Technical proficiency, especially in data analytics and digital tools, is essential for making data-driven decisions. Creativity is crucial to devise innovative campaigns that capture audiences' attention. Furthermore, adaptability and a keen eye for market trends enable marketers to stay ahead of the competition. Effective communication and collaboration skills foster seamless teamwork, while a growth mindset encourages continuous learning and improvement. 14. How do you manage time when juggling multiple projects simultaneously? Response (Band 9): Juggling multiple projects requires meticulous time management and prioritization. To achieve this, I utilize advanced project management tools that allow me to set deadlines, track progress, and allocate time efficiently. I break down tasks into manageable segments and adhere to a well-structured schedule, dedicating focused periods to each project. Regular progress evaluations help me identify potential bottlenecks early, allowing for timely adjustments and ensuring all projects receive the attention they deserve. 15. Have you ever encountered a situation where a marketing campaign did not perform as expected? How did you handle it? Response (Band 9): Yes, I've encountered instances where marketing campaigns didn't achieve the anticipated results. In such situations, I adopt a data-driven approach to analyze the campaign's performance thoroughly. I closely examine various metrics to identify shortcomings and areas for improvement. Instead of viewing it as a setback, I see it as an opportunity to learn and refine strategies for future endeavors. By embracing a growth mindset and seeking feedback from team members, I ensure that each campaign becomes a stepping stone towards greater success. 16. Describe a moment when your creativity played a vital role in devising a successful marketing strategy. Response (Band 9): There was a memorable occasion when our company aimed to launch a groundbreaking product in a crowded market. To stand out, I devised a creative campaign incorporating gamification elements. We developed interactive quizzes and challenges that engaged the target audience and fostered a sense of excitement around the product. The campaign's unprecedented success not only boosted sales but also reinforced the idea that innovative and creative approaches can yield exceptional outcomes. 17. What motivates you the most in your work? Response (Band 9): The most significant motivator for me is witnessing the tangible impact of my work on the company's success. Seeing our marketing efforts translate into increased brand awareness, higher customer engagement, and ultimately, improved business performance is immensely rewarding. Additionally, the ever-evolving nature of the digital marketing landscape excites me, as it presents a continuous stream of opportunities to experiment, innovate, and make a lasting difference. 18. How do you handle the pressure of meeting tight deadlines and demanding targets? Response (Band 9): Meeting tight deadlines and demanding targets is an inherent aspect of my role, and I embrace it with a proactive mindset. I rely on careful planning and effective time management to break down tasks into manageable portions. Prioritizing tasks based on their impact and ensuring clear communication within the team helps streamline processes. Additionally, I engage in stress-reducing activities like mindfulness exercises and physical workouts to maintain a focused and composed demeanor during high-pressure situations. 19. Have you ever implemented an out-of-the-box marketing strategy that significantly exceeded expectations? Response (Band 9): Indeed, I once implemented a daring guerrilla marketing campaign that defied conventional practices. The campaign involved creative street art installations and interactive pop-up events, attracting immense attention from passersby and social media users. The campaign's virality surpassed all expectations, leading to a substantial increase in brand visibility and a surge in organic engagement. This experience reinforced my belief in the power of innovative thinking and unconventional approaches in marketing. 20. How do you ensure the seamless integration of digital marketing efforts with the company's overall business goals? Response (Band 9): To ensure the seamless integration of digital marketing efforts with the company's business goals, I maintain open communication with key stakeholders. Understanding the company's long-term vision and strategic objectives allows me to align marketing strategies with overarching goals. Regularly evaluating campaign metrics against established KPIs enables me to gauge effectiveness and make necessary adjustments. Additionally, collaborating with cross-functional teams and sharing insights helps create a unified approach, wherein digital marketing becomes an instrumental driver of the company's success.

1. Can you describe the dynamics of your family? Band 9 Answer: Certainly! My family is rather tight-knit, and we have always stuck together through thick and thin. We share a deep bond and often engage in heart-to-heart conversations. My parents have always been the backbone of our family, providing unwavering support and guidance. Growing up, my siblings and I were like peas in a pod, although we did have our fair share of sibling rivalry. Despite that, blood is thicker than water, and we've always managed to resolve our differences. Overall, our family is a close unit, and we cherish each other's company. 2. How important do you think family support is during challenging times? Band 9 Answer: Family support during challenging times is nothing short of invaluable. When the chips are down, having a solid support system can make all the difference. From my personal experience, my family has been my rock during tough periods, offering both emotional and practical assistance. They've never hesitated to lend a helping hand or a sympathetic ear. As they say, "A problem shared is a problem halved," and sharing my burdens with my family has alleviated my stress significantly. Family support acts as a safety net, giving me the confidence to tackle life's hurdles head-on. 3. How has your family influenced your life choices and decisions? Band 9 Answer: My family has had a profound impact on shaping my life choices and decisions. Their guidance and wisdom have played a pivotal role in my decision-making process. I've always looked up to my parents as role models, following in their footsteps and adhering to their advice. Their mantra of "Strive for excellence" has driven me to pursue my goals relentlessly. Moreover, their unconditional love and belief in my capabilities have empowered me to take on challenges fearlessly. Without their unwavering support, I wouldn't be the person I am today. 4. In your culture, do you believe it's essential to maintain close ties with extended family members? Band 9 Answer: In my culture, maintaining close ties with extended family members is highly valued. We cherish the concept of an extended family, and family gatherings are occasions of great joy and celebration. We believe in the saying, "The more, the merrier," and having a wide network of relatives fosters a sense of belonging and interconnectedness. While immediate family remains the core, staying connected with cousins, aunts, uncles, and grandparents strengthens our cultural traditions and values. It's like having a safety net of love and support, always ready to catch you. 5. Some people say that the traditional family structure is changing. What are your thoughts on this? Band 9 Answer: Indeed, the traditional family structure is undergoing significant transformations in the modern world. Gone are the days when the conventional nuclear family was the norm. Today, we witness a diverse range of family setups, including single-parent families, same-sex couples raising children, and blended families resulting from remarriages. Society is evolving, and with it, our understanding and acceptance of different family models are expanding. What truly matters is the love, care, and commitment shared among family members, regardless of their structure. As long as there is a strong sense of support and affection, the form of the family becomes secondary. 6. How has the concept of family evolved over the past few decades in your country? Band 9 Answer: Over the past few decades, the concept of family in my country has experienced a metamorphosis. Traditionally, families were more patriarchal, with defined gender roles and hierarchical structures. However, with the winds of change, these norms have been challenged, and we now witness a shift towards more egalitarian family dynamics. Women have broken the glass ceiling and become breadwinners, while men have embraced caregiving responsibilities. Moreover, the notion of family has expanded to include chosen families, where close friends are considered as dear as blood relatives. These transformations signify the adaptability and resilience of our society. 7. Describe a memorable family event that brought everyone together. Band 9 Answer: One of the most cherished family events that brought everyone together was my grandparents' golden wedding anniversary. It was a momentous occasion, and we pulled out all the stops to celebrate their 50 years of togetherness. The whole family rallied together to organize a grand celebration, making it a truly unforgettable experience. During the event, laughter and tears of joy flowed freely, as we shared anecdotes and reminisced about the wonderful moments we had spent with them. It was a time when the ties that bound our family became even stronger, and we realized the significance of cherishing such special moments together. 8. In your opinion, what factors contribute to maintaining strong family bonds? Band 9 Answer: Maintaining strong family bonds requires a combination of factors. Firstly, effective communication is paramount. Open, honest, and compassionate communication fosters understanding and empathy among family members. Secondly, making time for each other is vital. In our fast-paced lives, quality time spent together reinforces the bonds and strengthens relationships. Thirdly, supporting each other's dreams and aspirations helps build a solid foundation of trust and mutual respect. Lastly, the willingness to forgive and reconcile during times of conflict ensures that no grudges erode the unity of the family. Combining these elements paves the way for enduring family connections. 9. How do cultural traditions influence family values in your society? Band 9 Answer: Cultural traditions play a pivotal role in shaping family values in our society. They act as guiding principles, instilling a sense of identity and belonging among family members. Our cultural values emphasize the importance of filial piety, respect for elders, and maintaining close family ties. Traditional ceremonies and rituals further strengthen these values by reinforcing family bonds and promoting unity. For instance, festivals are occasions where families come together, rekindling shared experiences and reaffirming their cultural heritage. As a result, cultural traditions serve as the bedrock of our family values and are cherished from one generation to the next. 10. Discuss the impact of globalization on family structures and relationships. Band 9 Answer: Globalization has left an indelible mark on family structures and relationships worldwide. With increased mobility, family members often find themselves separated by great distances. The phenomenon of "brain drain" has led to skilled individuals seeking better opportunities abroad, leaving behind their families. On the flip side, globalization has also facilitated easier communication through technology, allowing families to bridge the gap despite being physically distant. Furthermore, exposure to diverse cultures through globalization has broadened perspectives, encouraging families to embrace different lifestyles and beliefs. Thus, while globalization has posed challenges, it has also provided avenues for families to adapt and stay connected in this ever-changing world. 11. How do you think family dynamics might change as the world becomes more technologically advanced? Band 9 Answer: As the world becomes more technologically advanced, family dynamics are bound to experience significant shifts. Technology has already altered the way families interact, with virtual communication becoming increasingly prevalent. With the rise of remote work and online education, families may spend more time together at home, fostering a different kind of togetherness. However, there might be concerns regarding screen time and the potential loss of face-to-face interactions. Additionally, technology could create generational gaps as older and younger family members adopt technology at different rates. Overall, the impact of technological advancements on family dynamics will depend on how families adapt and strike a balance between virtual and in-person connections. 12. Do you think having a large extended family can be more advantageous or challenging? Band 9 Answer: Having a large extended family can present both advantages and challenges. On the one hand, a large extended family means having a vast support network during difficult times. There are more shoulders to lean on, and financial burdens can be shared among members. Additionally, family gatherings are vibrant and lively affairs, filled with love and camaraderie. On the other hand, managing relationships and maintaining communication with a large number of relatives can be daunting. Sometimes, conflicting opinions and family dynamics may lead to tension and disagreements. Ultimately, the advantages or challenges of a large extended family depend on how effectively the members communicate, support, and respect each other. 13. How has the concept of the traditional nuclear family changed in urban areas compared to rural areas? Band 9 Answer: The concept of the traditional nuclear family has undergone noticeable changes in both urban and rural areas. In urban centers, the fast-paced lifestyle, demanding careers, and housing constraints have led to smaller families. Dual-income households are becoming the norm, necessitating a reevaluation of traditional gender roles. In contrast, rural areas tend to have larger families, with a stronger emphasis on extended family relationships. Agriculture-based livelihoods often require collective efforts, promoting interdependence among family members. However, urbanization is gradually influencing rural areas too, as access to education and job opportunities leads to smaller families and a shift towards nuclear family structures. 14. Some people believe that family traditions can be too restrictive. What is your stance on this? Band 9 Answer: While family traditions can provide a strong sense of cultural identity and continuity, they can indeed be perceived as restrictive by some individuals. It depends on how these traditions are perceived and implemented within the family. For some, adhering strictly to traditions might feel confining, leaving little room for personal growth and individual expression. However, for others, these traditions can be a source of comfort and stability, anchoring them in a shared heritage. The key lies in striking a balance between preserving valued traditions and embracing progressive ideas that allow family members to explore their individuality while respecting cultural roots. 15. How has modern technology influenced the way families stay connected and maintain relationships? Band 9 Answer: Modern technology has revolutionized the way families stay connected and maintain relationships. Smartphones, social media, and video calling platforms have bridged the geographical gap, enabling families to communicate instantly, regardless of distance. Family members can share their lives in real-time through pictures, videos, and messages, fostering a sense of togetherness. Moreover, technology has made planning family events and reunions more accessible, as scheduling and coordination become effortless. However, it's essential to strike a balance and ensure that virtual interactions complement, rather than replace, in-person connections for a truly fulfilling family experience. 16. In some cultures, the concept of family honor plays a significant role. What are your thoughts on this? Band 9 Answer: The concept of family honor has deep cultural roots in certain societies, and it emphasizes upholding the family's reputation and dignity. While on the one hand, it promotes a sense of responsibility and pride in one's family, on the other hand, it can create undue pressure on individuals to conform to societal expectations. The notion of family honor can be empowering when it encourages positive values and community support. However, it can also become restrictive when it hinders personal choices and freedoms. Striking a balance between preserving family honor and respecting individual autonomy is essential to create a harmonious and inclusive society. 17. Describe a time when a family member's advice had a significant impact on your life. Band 9 Answer: A pivotal moment in my life was when I was contemplating a career change, and I was uncertain about taking the leap. My elder sister, who has always been my confidante, offered me a piece of advice that stuck with me. She said, "Life is too short to stay in a place that doesn't fulfill you. Take a risk, follow your passion, and success will follow." Her words resonated deeply, and they gave me the courage to pursue my dreams. Looking back, I am immensely grateful for her wisdom and encouragement. Her advice not only shaped my career but also instilled in me the belief that taking calculated risks can lead to rewarding outcomes. 18. In what ways do family traditions contribute to a sense of cultural identity? Band 9 Answer: Family traditions serve as the threads that weave our cultural fabric, strengthening our sense of identity and belonging. Passed down through generations, these customs reflect our cultural heritage and values. They act as markers of shared history, uniting family members with a common purpose. Engaging in traditions fosters a feeling of continuity and pride in our cultural background. Moreover, family traditions often involve storytelling, where elders pass on tales of ancestors and significant events, connecting us to our roots. Celebrating these traditions brings a deep sense of community and reinforces the bonds that tie us together. 19. In today's fast-paced world, do you think families are spending enough quality time together? Band 9 Answer: In the hustle and bustle of modern life, it's true that families may find it challenging to spend enough quality time together. The demands of work, school, and other commitments can easily lead to time constraints. However, families that prioritize their relationships can find ways to carve out meaningful moments. Whether it's through regular family dinners, weekend outings, or dedicated tech-free hours, deliberate efforts to connect are crucial. Quality time need not be lengthy; it is the genuine engagement and attention that matters. By making family time a priority, we can nurture stronger bonds and create lasting memories. 20. How does the concept of family differ across various cultures, and what can we learn from these differences? Band 9 Answer: The concept of family varies significantly across cultures, reflecting diverse societal norms and values. In some cultures, family might extend beyond blood relations to include close friends or even the broader community. In others, it might be strictly limited to nuclear family members. Understanding these differences can broaden our perspectives and challenge any ethnocentric beliefs. By learning about various family structures and traditions, we gain insight into alternative approaches to love, support, and interpersonal relationships. Embracing this diversity helps foster a more inclusive and compassionate society that appreciates the richness of cultural heritage worldwide.

IELTS band 9 vocabulary words, along with their meanings and examples from IELTS essays: Abundant - (adj.) plentiful, ample Example: The city offers abundant opportunities for cultural exploration. Acquire - (v.) to gain, obtain Example: Learning a second language can help you acquire new perspectives. Adequate - (adj.) sufficient, satisfactory Example: The government must provide adequate healthcare for all citizens. Advocate - (v.) to support, promote Example: Many environmentalists advocate for renewable energy sources. Alleviate - (v.) to ease, relieve Example: Yoga can alleviate stress and improve overall well-being. Ambiguous - (adj.) unclear, vague Example: The politician's statement was intentionally ambiguous, leaving room for interpretation. Analyze - (v.) to examine, study closely Example: Researchers analyzed the data to identify patterns and trends. Apparent - (adj.) clear, evident Example: The effects of climate change are becoming increasingly apparent. Appreciate - (v.) to recognize the value of, be grateful for Example: We should appreciate the efforts of those who work to protect the environment. Arbitrary - (adj.) random, without reason Example: The decision to close the factory seemed arbitrary and unfair. Aspire - (v.) to have a strong desire or ambition Example: Many young students aspire to become successful entrepreneurs. Assess - (v.) to evaluate, judge Example: Teachers assess students' performance through various assessments. Assimilate - (v.) to integrate, adapt Example: Immigrants often face challenges in assimilating into a new culture. Attain - (v.) to achieve, accomplish Example: With hard work and dedication, you can attain your goals. Attribute - (v.) to credit, assign Example: The success of the project can be attributed to the team's collaboration. Authentic - (adj.) genuine, real Example: The museum displays authentic artifacts from ancient civilizations. Bias - (n.) prejudice, favoritism Example: The journalist's article was criticized for its political bias. Coherent - (adj.) logical, consistent Example: The professor's lecture was coherent and easy to follow. Coincide - (v.) to occur at the same time, correspond Example: The conference coincides with the release of the latest research findings. Complement - (v.) to enhance, complete Example: The new furniture complements the overall design of the room. Comprehend - (v.) to understand, grasp Example: It is important to read widely to comprehend different perspectives. Conceive - (v.) to imagine, envision Example: The artist conceived a unique concept for her next exhibition. Conducive - (adj.) favorable, beneficial Example: A quiet environment is conducive to concentration and productivity. Constitute - (v.) to form, make up Example: These factors constitute the main causes of climate change. Contemplate - (v.) to consider, ponder Example: Before making a decision, it is important to contemplate the possible outcomes. Contradict - (v.) to oppose, deny Example: The witness's statement contradicted the defendant's alibi. Correlate - (v.) to relate, connect Example: Research has shown that regular exercise Correlate - (v.) to relate, connect Example: Research has shown that regular exercise correlates with improved mental health. Counterpart - (n.) equivalent, counterpart Example: The CEO met with her international counterparts to discuss business strategies. Cumulative - (adj.) increasing or growing by accumulation Example: The cumulative effects of pollution are detrimental to the environment. Deduce - (v.) to infer, conclude Example: From the evidence presented, we can deduce that the suspect is guilty. Deficit - (n.) shortage, insufficiency Example: The country is facing a budget deficit due to excessive spending. Deplete - (v.) to exhaust, use up Example: Overfishing has depleted the fish population in the ocean. Dilemma - (n.) a difficult choice, a predicament Example: She faced a dilemma when deciding between pursuing her passion or a stable career. Discern - (v.) to perceive, recognize Example: It is important to discern reliable sources of information from misinformation. Discrepancy - (n.) inconsistency, difference Example: There was a discrepancy between the witness's testimony and the video evidence. Disperse - (v.) to scatter, spread out Example: The crowd began to disperse after the concert ended. Dissent - (v.) to disagree, differ in opinion Example: Some members of the committee dissented from the proposed plan. Diverse - (adj.) varied, different Example: The university prides itself on its diverse student body from around the world. Dominate - (v.) to control, prevail Example: The multinational corporation dominates the global market. Elaborate - (adj.) detailed, intricate Example: The architect presented an elaborate design for the new building. Eminent - (adj.) distinguished, renowned Example: The scientist is an eminent figure in the field of astrophysics. Empirical - (adj.) based on observation or experience Example: The study drew conclusions based on empirical data collected over several years. Engage - (v.) to involve, participate Example: It is important for teachers to engage students actively in the learning process. Enhance - (v.) to improve, strengthen Example: Regular exercise can enhance physical fitness and overall well-being. Enormous - (adj.) huge, immense Example: The construction of the skyscraper required an enormous amount of resources. Eradicate - (v.) to eliminate, get rid of Example: Efforts to eradicate poverty require a comprehensive approach. Esteem - (v.) to regard highly, respect Example: She is esteemed for her contributions to the field of literature. Evolve - (v.) to develop, change over time Example: Technology continues to evolve at a rapid pace. Exemplify - (v.) to illustrate, represent Example: The character in the novel exemplifies courage and resilience. Exploit - (v.) to take advantage of, utilize unfairly Example: Some companies exploit cheap labor in developing countries. Extensive - (adj.) wide-ranging, comprehensive Example: The researcher conducted an extensive study on the effects of climate change. Facilitate - (v.) to make easier, assist Example: Technology has facilitated communication across long distances. Fluctuate - (v.) to vary, change frequently Example: The prices of commodities often fluctuate based on supply and demand. Formulate - (v.) to create, develop Example: The committee worked together to formulate a plan of action. Foster - (v.) to promote, encourage Example: The government aims to foster innovation and entrepreneurship. Implicate - (v.) to involve, incriminate Example: The evidence found at the crime scene implicates the suspect. Impose - (v.) to enforce, apply Example: The government may impose stricter regulations to protect the environment. Inclined - (adj.) likely, disposed Example: She is inclined to pursue a career in the field of medicine. Indicate - (v.) to suggest, show Example: The study's findings indicate a strong correlation between smoking and lung cancer. Infer - (v.) to deduce, draw a conclusion Example: From the data collected, we can infer that exercise improves cognitive function. Inhibit - (v.) to hinder, restrain Example: Fear of failure can inhibit individuals from taking risks. Innovate - (v.) to introduce new ideas or methods Example: Technology companies constantly strive to innovate and stay ahead of the competition. Integrity - (n.) honesty, moral principles Example: The leader is known for his integrity and ethical decision-making. Integrate - (v.) to combine, merge Example: The school aims to integrate technology into its curriculum. Intricate - (adj.) complex, detailed Example: The artist created an intricate mosaic using tiny glass pieces. Justify - (v.) to provide a valid reason or explanation Example: The company must justify its decision to lay off employees. Magnitude - (n.) great size or extent Example: The earthquake's magnitude was measured on the Richter scale. Manifest - (v.) to demonstrate, display Example: The symptoms of the disease began to manifest in the patient. Manipulate - (v.) to control or influence cleverly or unfairly Example: The media can manipulate public opinion through selective reporting. Merge - (v.) to combine, unite Example: The two companies decided to merge to expand their market share. Mitigate - (v.) to alleviate, reduce Example: Planting trees can help mitigate the effects of climate change. Notion - (n.) a concept, idea Example: The notion of equality is fundamental to a just society. Nurture - (v.) to care for, nourish Example: Parents play a crucial role in nurturing their child's development. Objective - (adj.) unbiased, impartial Example: The journalist strives to present the news in an objective manner. Obsolete - (adj.) outdated, no longer in use Example: The invention of smartphones made traditional alarm clocks obsolete. Optimize - (v.) to make the best use of, maximize Example: The company aims to optimize its production process to increase efficiency. Paradox - (n.) a contradiction, a puzzle Example: The concept of time travel presents a paradox that challenges our understanding. Perceive - (v.) to understand, be aware of Example: Different cultures may perceive gestures and symbols differently. Persuade - (v.) to convince, influence Example: The speaker used compelling arguments to persuade the audience. Pivotal - (adj.) crucial, essential Example: The meeting tomorrow is pivotal to the success of the project. Plausible - (adj.) believable, reasonable Example: The witness provided a plausible explanation for his actions. Potent - (adj.) powerful, effective Example: The drug has a potent effect on pain relief. Prevalent - (adj.) widespread, common Example: Social media is prevalent in today's society. Prohibit - (v.) to forbid, ban Example: The law prohibits smoking in public places. Prominent - (adj.) well-known, notable Example: The scientist made a prominent contribution to the field of genetics. Proponent - (n.) advocate, supporter Example: She is a strong proponent of renewable energy. Propel - (v.) to drive, push forward Example: Innovation in technology has propelled economic growth. Provoke - (v.) to incite, stimulate Example: His provocative statements provoked a heated debate. Proliferate - (v.) to multiply, increase rapidly Example: The use of smartphones has proliferated in recent years. Proponent - (n.) advocate, supporter Example: She is a strong proponent of renewable energy. Prudent - (adj.) wise, cautious Example: It is prudent to save money for unexpected expenses. Reconcile - (v.) to resolve, make compatible Example: The couple tried to reconcile their differences and save their relationship. Refute - (v.) to prove false, disprove Example: The scientist presented evidence to refute the hypothesis. Reinforce - (v.) to strengthen, support Example: The positive feedback reinforced her confidence. Relevance - (n.) importance, significance Example: The discussion of climate change is of great relevance in today's world. Reluctant - (adj.) unwilling, hesitant Example: She was reluctant to accept the job offer due to the long commute. Resilient - (adj.) able to recover quickly, bounce back Example: The community showed resilient spirit in the face of adversity. Retain - (v.) to keep, preserve Example: It is important to retain important information for future reference. Reveal - (v.) to disclose, make known Example: The investigation revealed new evidence in the case. Rigorous - (adj.) thorough, demanding Example: The scientific study underwent rigorous testing and analysis. Sustain - (v.) to support, maintain Example: Renewable energy sources help sustain the environment. Synthesize - (v.) to combine, integrate Example: The researcher synthesized data from various studies to draw conclusions. Tackle - (v.) to deal with, address Example: The government needs to tackle the issue of unemployment. Temperate - (adj.) mild, moderate Example: The region has a temperate climate with four distinct seasons. Transform - (v.) to change, convert Example: Technology has transformed the way we communicate. Undermine - (v.) to weaken, sabotage Example: Gossip and rumors can undermine trust within a community. Unprecedented - (adj.) never before seen or experienced Example: The pandemic had an unprecedented impact on global travel. Utilize - (v.) to make use of, employ Example: The company aims to utilize renewable energy sources. Validate - (v.) to confirm, prove the truth or validity of Example: The experiment was conducted to validate the hypothesis. Versatile - (adj.) adaptable, flexible Example: She is a versatile actress who can perform in various genres. Vigorous - (adj.) energetic, robust Example: Regular exercise promotes a vigorous and healthy lifestyle. Yield - (v.) to produce, generate Example: The research study yielded valuable insights into the topic. Zeal - (n.) enthusiasm, passion Example: He tackled his work with great zeal and dedication. Accommodate - (v.) to provide lodging or space for, adjust to suit Example: The hotel can accommodate up to 200 guests. Advocate - (n.) a supporter, proponent Example: She is a strong advocate for human rights. Ample - (adj.) plentiful, abundant Example: There is ample evidence to support the theory. Bolster - (v.) to support, strengthen Example: The government implemented policies to bolster the economy. Cite - (v.) to quote, reference Example: The author cited several studies to support her argument. Conducive - (adj.) favorable, advantageous Example: A calm environment is conducive to effective studying. Constitute - (v.) to form, make up Example: Women constitute a significant portion of the workforce. Contradict - (v.) to oppose, disagree with Example: His statement contradicted what he had previously said. Delineate - (v.) to describe, outline Example: The map clearly delineates the boundaries of the national park. Deploy - (v.) to position or use strategically Example: The military deployed troops to the conflict zone. Detrimental - (adj.) harmful, damaging Example: Smoking is detrimental to one's health. Deviate - (v.) to depart from a norm or plan Example: She decided to deviate from the original route and take a shortcut. Diminish - (v.) to decrease, reduce Example: The quality of the product diminished over time. Discernible - (adj.) perceptible, noticeable Example: There was a discernible improvement in her performance. Disparity - (n.) inequality, difference Example: There is a significant disparity in income levels between the rich and the poor. Elicit - (v.) to draw out, evoke Example: The speaker's words elicited a strong emotional response from the audience. Emphasize - (v.) to highlight, give importance to Example: The speaker emphasized the importance of environmental conservation. Encompass - (v.) to include, cover Example: The study encompasses a wide range of topics. Evoke - (v.) to elicit, bring forth Example: The painting evokes a sense of tranquility and peace. Exacerbate - (v.) to worsen, intensify Example: The economic crisis exacerbated unemployment rates. Flourish - (v.) to thrive, prosper Example: The business began to flourish after implementing new strategies. Implication - (n.) a consequence or result Example: The implications of the decision were far-reaching. Inhibit - (v.) to hinder, restrain Example: Fear can inhibit individuals from taking risks. Intricate - (adj.) complex, intricate Example: The intricate design of the artwork required meticulous attention to detail. Justification - (n.) a reason or explanation Example: The student provided strong justifications for his opinion in the essay. Manifestation - (n.) an indication or embodiment of something Example: The increased crime rate is a manifestation of deeper social issues. Meticulous - (adj.) extremely careful and precise Example: The architect paid meticulous attention to every detail of the building's design. Omit - (v.) to leave out or exclude Example: Please do not omit any important details in your report. Overlook - (v.) to fail to notice or consider Example: The supervisor overlooked a crucial mistake in the project. Paradoxical - (adj.) seemingly contradictory but actually true Example: It is paradoxical that she is both confident and shy at the same time. Pervasive - (adj.) widespread, prevalent Example: The influence of social media is pervasive in today's society. Provoke - (v.) to incite or stimulate a reaction or emotion Example: His offensive remarks provoked anger among the audience. Reiterate - (v.) to repeat or emphasize Example: The speaker reiterated the importance of preserving the environment. Resonate - (v.) to evoke a strong emotion or response Example: The powerful message of the poem resonated with the audience. Scrutinize - (v.) to examine closely or carefully Example: The committee will scrutinize the proposal before making a decision. Simultaneously - (adv.) happening at the same time Example: The two events were scheduled to take place simultaneously. Underlying - (adj.) fundamental, basic Example: There are underlying causes for the increase in crime rates. Validate - (v.) to confirm or prove the validity of something Example: The results of the experiment validated the hypothesis. Virtually - (adv.) almost, nearly Example: The new technology has virtually eliminated the need for manual labor. Widespread - (adj.) extensive, prevalent Example: The flu outbreak has become widespread in the community. Withstand - (v.) to endure or withstand pressure or force Example: The bridge is designed to withstand strong winds and earthquakes. Yield - (v.) to produce or provide a result or outcome Example: The research study yielded valuable insights into the topic. Zealous - (adj.) passionate, enthusiastic Example: She is a zealous advocate for animal rights. Attribute - (v.) to credit or ascribe to a particular cause or source Example: The success of the project can be attributed to effective teamwork. Bolster - (v.) to support, reinforce Example: The new evidence bolstered the defendant's case. Constitute - (v.) to form or make up a whole Example: Women constitute a significant portion of the company's workforce. Corroborate - (v.) to confirm or support with evidence or testimony Example: The witness's statement corroborated the victim's account of the incident. Curtail - (v.) to reduce or restrict Example: The government implemented measures to curtail carbon emissions. Deter - (v.) to discourage or prevent from doing something Example: The high security measures are intended to deter potential criminals. Elucidate - (v.) to clarify or explain Example: The professor used diagrams to elucidate the complex concept. Endorse - (v.) to support or approve Example: The celebrity endorsed the new product in a television commercial. Exemplify - (v.) to serve as a typical example of Example: The organization's success exemplifies effective leadership. Exacerbate - (v.) to make a problem or situation worse Example: The lack of rain exacerbated the drought conditions. Facilitate - (v.) to make easier or more convenient Example: The new software facilitates data analysis and reporting. Hamper - (v.) to hinder or impede progress or movement Example: The heavy traffic hampered our ability to arrive on time. Illuminate - (v.) to clarify or make something clear Example: The professor used real-life examples to illuminate the complex theory. Indicate - (v.) to point out or show Example: The survey results indicate a high level of customer satisfaction. Instigate - (v.) to initiate or provoke an action or event Example: His inflammatory remarks instigated a heated argument. Justify - (v.) to provide a valid reason or explanation for something Example: The defendant's lawyer tried to justify his client's actions. Mitigate - (v.) to reduce or alleviate the severity or impact of something Example: The new policy aims to mitigate the effects of climate change. Promote - (v.) to support or encourage the growth or development of Example: The company promotes a healthy work-life balance for its employees. Reinforce - (v.) to strengthen or make something more effective Example: The positive feedback reinforced her confidence in her abilities. Substantiate - (v.) to provide evidence or proof for something Example: The witness's testimony substantiated the defendant's alibi. Undermine - (v.) to weaken or compromise the effectiveness or stability of Example: The leaked documents undermined the company's reputation. Validate - (v.) to confirm or prove the truth or validity of something Example: The experiment's results validated the hypothesis. Yield - (v.) to produce or provide a result or outcome Example: The project yielded significant financial benefits for the company. Zeal - (n.) great enthusiasm or passion for something Example: She tackled her work with zeal and dedication.

Biology of Bitterness A. There is a reason why grapefruit juice is served in little glasses: most people don’t want to drink more than a few ounces at a time. aringin, a natural chemical compound found in grapefruit, tastes bitter. Some people like that bitterness in small doses and believe it enhances the general flavor, but others would rather avoid it altogether. So juice packagers often select grapefruit with low naringin though the compound has antioxidant properties that some nutritionists contend may help prevent cancer and arteriosclerosis. B. It is possible, however, to get the goodness of grapefruit juice without the bitter taste. I found that out by participating in a test conducted at the Linguagen Corporation, a biotechnology company in Cranbury, New Jersey. Sets of two miniature white paper cups, labeled 304and 305, were placed before five people seated around a conference table. Each of us drank from one cup and then the other, cleansing our palates between tastes with water and a soda cracker. Even the smallest sip of 304 had grapefruit ‘s unmistakable bitter bite. But 305 was smoother; there was the sour taste of citrus but none of the bitterness of naringin. This juice had been treated with adenosine monophosphate, or AMP, a compound that blocks the bitterness in foods without making them less nutritious. C. Taste research is a booming business these days, with scientists delving into all five basics-sweet, bitter, sour, salty, and umami, the savory taste of protein. Bitterness is of special interest to industry because of its untapped potential in food. There are thousands of bitter -tasting compounds in nature. They defend plants by warning animals away and protect animals by letting them know when a plant may be poisonous. But the system isn’t foolproof. Grapefruit and cruciferous vegetable like Brussels sprouts and kale are nutritious despite-and sometimes because of-their bitter-tasting components. Over time, many people have learned to love them, at least in small doses. “Humans are the only species that enjoys bitter taste,” says Charles Zuker, a neuroscientist at the University of California School of Medicine at San Diego. “Every other species is averse to bitter because it means bad news. But we have learned to enjoy it. We drink coffee, which is bitter, and quinine [in tonic water] too. We enjoy having that spice in our lives.” Because bitterness can be pleasing in small quantities but repellent when intense, bitter blockers like AMP could make a whole range of foods, drinks, and medicines more palatable-and therefore more profitable. D. People have varying capacities for tasting bitterness, and the differences appear to be genetic. About 75 percent of people are sensitive to the taste of the bitter compounds phenylthiocarbamide and 6-n-propylthiouracil. and 25 percent are insensitive. Those who are sensitive to phenylthiocarbamide seem to be less likely than others to eat cruciferous vegetables, according to Stephen Wooding, a geneticist at the University of Utah. Some people, known as supertasters, are especially sensitive to 6-n-propylthiouraci because they have an unusually high number of taste buds. Supertasters tend to shun all kinds of bitter-tasting things, including vegetable, coffee, and dark chocolate. Perhaps as a result, they tend to be thin. They’re also less fond of alcoholic drinks, which are often slightly bitter. Dewar’s scotch, for instance, tastes somewhat sweet to most people. ” But a supertaster tastes no sweetness at all, only bitterness,” says Valerie Duffy, an associate professor of dietetics at the University of Connecticut at Storrs. E. In one recent study, Duffy found that supertasters consume alcoholic beverages, on average, only two to three times a week, compared with five or six times for the average nontasters. Each taste bud, which looks like an onion, consists of 50 to 100 elongated cells running from the top of the bud to the bottom. At the top is a little clump of receptors that capture the taste molecules, known as tastants, in food and drink. The receptors function much like those for sight and smell. Once a bitter signal has been received, it is relayed via proteins known as G proteins. The G protein involved in the perception of bitterness, sweetness, and umami was identified in the early 1990s by Linguagen’s founder, Robert Margolskee, at Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City. Known as gustducin, the protein triggers a cascade of chemical reactions that lead to changes in ion concentrations within the cell. Ultimately, this delivers a signal to the brain that registers as bitter. “The signaling system is like a bucket brigade,” Margolskee says. “It goes from the G protein to other proteins.” F. In 2000 Zuker and others found some 30 different kinds of genes that code for bitter-taste receptors. “We knew the number would have to be large because there is such a large universe of bitter tastants,” Zuker says. Yet no matter which tastant enters the mouth or which receptor it attaches to, bitter always tastes the same to us. The only variation derives from its intensity and the ways in which it can be flavored by the sense of smell. “Taste cells are like a light switch,” Zuker says. “They are either on or off.” G. Once they figured put the taste mechanism, scientists began to think of ways to interfere with it. They tried AMP, an organic compound found in breast milk and other substances, which is created as cells break down food. Amp has no bitterness of its own, but when put it in foods, Margolskee and his colleagues discovered, it attaches to bitter-taste receptors. As effective as it is, AMP may not be able to dampen every type pf bitter taste, because it probably doesn’t attach to all 30 bitter-taste receptors. So Linguagen has scaled up the hunt for other bitter blockers with a technology called high-throughput screening. Researchers start by coaxing cells in culture to activate bitter-taste receptors. Then candidate substances, culled from chemical compound libraries, are dropped onto the receptors, and scientists look for evidence of a reaction. H. Tin time, some taste researchers believe, compounds like AMP will help make processed foods less unhealthy. Consider, for example, that a single cup of Campbell’s chicken noodle soup contains 850 milligrams of sodium chloride, or table salt-more than a third of the recommended daily allowance. The salt masks the bitterness created by the high temperatures used in the canning process, which cause sugars and amino acids to react. Part of the salt could be replaced by another salt, potassium chloride, which tends to be scarce in some people’s diets. Potassium chloride has a bitter aftertaste, but that could be eliminated with a dose of AMP. Bitter blockers could also be used in place of cherry or grape flavoring to take the harshness out of children’s cough syrup, and they could dampen the bitterness of antihistamines, antibiotics, certain HIV drugs, and other medications. I. A number of foodmakers have already begun to experiment with AMP in their products, and other bitter blockers are being developed by rival firms such as Senomyx in La Jolla, California. In a few years, perhaps, after food companies have taken the bitterness from canned soup and TV dinners, they can set their sights on something more useful: a bitter blocker in a bottle that any of us can sprinkle on our brussels sprouts or stir into our grapefruit juice. Questions 1-8 The reading Passage has seven paragraphs A-I. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-I, in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet. 1. Experiment on bitterness conducted 2. Look into the future application 3. Bitterness means different information for human and animals 4. Spread process of bitterness inside of body 5. How AMP blocks bitterness 6. Some bitterness blocker may help lower unhealthy impact 7. Bitterness introduced from a fruit 8. Genetic feature determines sensitivity Question 9-12 Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the Reading Passage for each answer. The reason why grapefruit tastes bitter is because a substance called (9) …………….. contained in it. However, bitterness plays a significant role for plants. It gives a signal that certain plant is (10) …………….. For human beings, different person carries various genetic abilities of tasting bitterness. According to a scientist at the University of Utah, (11) ……………… have exceptionally plenty of (12) ………………… which allows them to perceive bitter compounds. Questions 13-14 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 13. What is the main feature of AMP according to this passage? A offset bitter flavour in food B only exist in 304 cup C tastes like citrus D chemical reaction when meets biscuit 14. What is the main function of G protein? A collecting taste molecule B identifying different flavors elements C resolving large molecules D transmitting bitter signals to the brain The Dinosaurs Footprints and Extinction A EVERYBODY knows that the dinosaurs were killed by an asteroid. Something big hit the earth 65 million years ago and, when the dust had fallen, so had the great reptiles. There is thus a nice if ironic, symmetry in the idea that a similar impact brought about the dinosaurs’ rise. That is the thesis proposed by Paul Olsen, of Columbia University, and his colleagues in this week’s Science. B Dinosaurs first appeared in the fossil record 230m years ago, during the Triassic period. But they were mostly small, and they shared the earth with lots of other sorts of reptile. It was in the subsequent Jurassic, which began 202 million years ago, that they overran the planet and turned into the monsters depicted in the book and movie “Jurassic Park”. (Actually, though, the dinosaurs that appeared on screen were from the still more recent Cretaceous period.) Dr Olsen and his colleagues are not the first to suggest that the dinosaurs inherited the earth as the result of an asteroid strike. But they are the first to show that the takeover did, indeed, happen in a geological eyeblink. C Dinosaur skeletons are rare. Dinosaur footprints are, however, surprisingly abundant. And the sizes of the prints are as good an indication of the sizes of the beasts as are the skeletons themselves. Dr Olsen and his colleagues, therefore, concentrated on prints, not bones. D The prints in question were made in eastern North America, a part of the world the full of rift valleys to those in East Africa today. Like the modern African rift valleys, the Triassic/Jurassic American ones contained lakes, and these lakes grew and shrank at regular intervals because of climatic changes caused by periodic shifts in the earth’s orbit. (A similar phenomenon is responsible for modern ice ages.) That regularity, combined with reversals in the earth’s magnetic field, which are detectable in the tiny fields of certain magnetic minerals, means that rocks from this place and period can be dated to within a few thousand years. As a bonus, squishy lake-edge sediments are just the things for recording the tracks of passing animals. By dividing the labour between themselves, the ten authors of the paper were able to study such tracks at 80 sites. E The researchers looked at 18 so-called ichnotaxa. These are recognizable types of the footprint that cannot be matched precisely with the species of animal that left them. But they can be matched with a general sort of animal, and thus act as an indicator of the fate of that group, even when there are no bones to tell the story. Five of the ichnotaxa disappear before the end of the Triassic, and four march confidently across the boundary into the Jurassic. Six, however, vanish at the boundary, or only just splutter across it; and there appear from nowhere, almost as soon as the Jurassic begins. F That boundary itself is suggestive. The first geological indication of the impact that killed the dinosaurs was an unusually high level of iridium in rocks at the end of the Cretaceous when the beasts disappear from the fossil record. Iridium is normally rare at the earth’s surface, but it is more abundant in meteorites. When people began to believe the impact theory, they started looking for other Cretaceous-and anomalies. One that turned up was a surprising abundance of fern spores in rocks just above the boundary layer – a phenomenon known as a “fern spike”. G That matched the theory nicely. Many modern ferns are opportunists. They cannot compete against plants with leaves, but if a piece of land is cleared by, say, a volcanic eruption, they are often the first things to set up shop there. An asteroid strike would have scoured much of the earth of its vegetable cover, and provided a paradise for ferns. A fern spike in the rocks is thus a good indication that something terrible has happened. H Both an iridium anomaly and a fern spike appear in rocks at the end of the Triassic, too. That accounts for the disappearing ichnotaxa: the creatures that made them did not survive the holocaust. The surprise is how rapidly the new ichnotaxa appear. I Dr Olsen and his colleagues suggest that the explanation for this rapid increase in size may be a phenomenon called ecological release. This is seen today when reptiles (which, in modern times, tend to be small creatures) reach islands where they face no competitors. The most spectacular example is on the Indonesian island of Komodo, where local lizards have grown so large that they are often referred to as dragons. The dinosaurs, in other words, could flourish only when the competition had been knocked out. J That leaves the question of where the impact happened. No large hole in the earth’s crust seems to be 202m years old. It may, of course, have been overlooked. Old craters are eroded and buried, and not always easy to find. Alternatively, it may have vanished. Although the continental crust is more or less permanent, the ocean floor is constantly recycled by the tectonic processes that bring about continental drift. There is no ocean floor left that is more than 200m years old, so a crater that formed in the ocean would have been swallowed up by now. K There is a third possibility, however. This is that the crater is known, but has been misdated. The Manicouagan “structure”, a crater in Quebec, is thought to be 214m years old. It is huge – some 100km across – and seems to be the largest of between three and five craters that formed within a few hours of each other as the lumps of a disintegrated comet hit the earth one by one. Questions 15-20 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In boxes 15-20 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 15. Dr Paul Olsen and his colleagues believe that asteroid knock may also lead to dinosaurs’ boom. 16. Books and movie like Jurassic Park often exaggerate the size of the dinosaurs. 17. Dinosaur footprints are more adequate than dinosaur skeletons. 18. The prints were chosen by Dr Olsen to study because they are more detectable than the earth magnetic field to track the date of geological precise within thousands of years. 19. Ichnotaxa showed that footprints of dinosaurs offer exact information of the trace left by an individual species. 20. We can find more Iridium in the earth’s surface than in meteorites. Questions 21-27 Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage. Using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the Reading Passage for each answer. Dr Olsen and his colleagues applied a phenomenon named (21) …………….. to explain the large size of the Eubrontes, which is a similar case to that nowadays reptiles invade a place where there are no (22) ………………….. for example, on an island called Komodo, indigenous huge lizards grow so big that people even regarding them as (23) …………………. However, there were no old impact trace being found? The answer may be that we have (24) ………………….. the evidence. Old craters are difficult to spot or it probably (25) …………………. Due to the effect of the earth moving. Even a crater formed in Ocean had been (26) …………………. under the impact of crust movement. Besides, the third hypothesis is that the potential evidence – some craters maybe (27) ……………….. A leap into history A. Between the Inishowen peninsula, north west of Derry, and the Glens of Antrim, in the east beyond the Sperrin Mountains, is found some of Western Europe’s most captivating and alluring landscape. B. The Roe Valley Park, some 15 miles east of Derry is a prime example. The Park, like so many Celtic places, is steeped in history and legend. As the Roc trickles down through heather bogs in the Sperrin Mountains to the South, it is a river by the time it cuts through what was once called the ‘garden of the soul’ – in Celtic ‘Gortenanima’. C. The castle of O’Cahan once stood here and a number of houses which made up the town of Limavady. The town takes its name from the legend of a dog leaping into the river Roe carrying a message, or perhaps chasing a stag. This is a wonderful place, where the water traces its way through rock and woodland; at times, lingering in brooding pools of dark cool water under the shade of summer trees, and, at others, forming weirs and leads for water mills now long gone. D. The Roe, like all rivers, is witness to history and change. To Mullagh Hill, on the west bank of the River Roe just outside the present day town of Limavady, St Columba came in 575 AD for the Convention of Drumceatt. The world is probably unaware that it knows something of Limavady; but the town is, in fact, renowned for Jane Ross’s song Danny Roy, written to a tune once played by a tramp in the street. Limavady tow n itself and many of the surrounding villages have Celtic roots but no one knows for sure just how old the original settlement of Limavady is. E. Some 30 miles along the coast road from Limavady, one comes upon the forlorn, but imposing ruin of Dunluce Castle, which stands on a soft basalt outcrop, in defiance of the turbulent Atlantic lashing it on all sides. The jagged­-toothed ruins sit proud on their rock top commanding the coastline to east and west. The only connection to the mainland is by a narrow bridge. Until the kitchen court fell into the sea in 1639 killing several servants, the castle was fully inhabited. In the next hundred years or so, the structure gradually fell into its present dramatic state of disrepair, stripped of its roofs by wind and weather and robbed by man of its caned stonework. Ruined and forlorn its aspect may­be yet, in the haunting Celtic twilight of the long summer evenings, it is redolent of another age, another dream. F. A mile or so to the east of the castle lies Port na Spaniagh, where the Neapolitan Galleas, Girona, from the Spanish Armada went down one dark October night in 1588 on its way to Scotland, of the 1500-odd men on board, nine survived. G. Even further to the east, is the Giant’s Causeway stunning coastline with strangely symmetrical columns of dark basalt – a beautiful geological wonder. Someone once said of the Causeway that it was worth seeing, but not worth going to see. That was in thê days of horses and carriages, when travelling was difficult. But it is certainly well worth a visit. The last lingering moments of the twilight hours are the best lime to savour the full power of the coastline s magic; the time when the place comes into its own. The tourists are gone and if you are very lucky you will be alone. A fine circular walk will take you down to the Grand Causeway, past amphitheatres of stone columns and formations. It is not frightening, but there is a power in the place – tangible, yet inexplicable. The blackness of some nights conjure up feelings of eeriness and unease. The visitor realises his place in the scheme of the magnificent spectacle. Once experienced, it is impossible to forget the grandeur of the landscape. H. Beyond the Causeway, connecting the mainland with an outcrop of rock jutting out of the turbulent Atlantic, is the Carrick-a-Rede Rope Bridge, when first constructed, the bridge was a simple rope handrail with widely spaced slats which was used mainly by salmon fishermen needing to travel from the island to the mainland. In time, the single handrail was replaced with a more sturdy caged bridge, however, it is still not a crossing for the faint- hearted. The Bridge swings above a chasm of rushing, foaming water that seems to drag the unwary- down, and away. Many visitors who make the walk one way are unable to return resulting in them being taken off the island by boat. Questions 28-32 Looking at the following list of places (Questions 28–32) from the paragraphs A-E of reading passage 3 and their locations on the map. Match each place with its location on the map. Write your answers m boxes 28-32 on your answer sheet. 28. The Sperrin Mountains 29. Dunluce Castle 30. Inishowen 31. The Glens of Antrim 32. Limavady Questions 33-38 Do the following statements reflect the claims of the writer in Reading Passage? In boxes 33-38 on your answer sheet write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 33. After 1639, the castle of Dunluce was not completely uninhabited. 34. For the author, Dunluce Castle evokes another period of history. 35. There were more than 1500 men on die Girona when it went down. 36. The writer believes that the Giant’s Causeway is worth going to visit. 37. The author recommends twilight as the best time to visit the Giant’s Causeway. 38. The more study cage added to the Carrick-a-Rede Rope Bridge has helped to increase the number of visitors to the area. Questions 39-40 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 39. The writer feels that the Giant’s Causeway is A an unsettling place. B a relaxing place. C a boring place. D an exciting place. 40. Which of the following would be a good title for the passage? A The Roe Valley Park. B The Giant’s Causeway. C Going East to West. D A leap into history. Answers 1. B 2. I 3. C 4. E 5. G 6. H 7. A 8. D 9. Naringin 10. Poisonous 11. Supertasters 12. Tastebuds 13. A 14. D 15. Yes 16. Not given 17. Yes 18. Not given 19. No 20. No 21. Ecological release 22. Competitors 23. Dragons 24. Overlooked 25. (have) vanished 26. Swallowed up 27. Misdated 28. E 29. C 30. A 31. D 32. B 33. Not given 34. Yes 35. Yes 36. Yes 37. Yes 38. Not given 39. A 40. D

The Dead Sea Scrolls In late 1946 or early 1947, three Bedouin teenagers were tending their goats and sheep near the ancient settlement of Qumran, located on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea in what is now known as the West Bank. One of these young shepherds tossed a rock into an opening on the side of a cliff and was surprised to hear a shattering sound. He and his companions later entered the cave and stumbled across a collection of large clay jars, seven of which contained scrolls with writing on them. The teenagers took the seven scrolls to a nearby town where they were sold for a small sum to a local antiquities dealer. Word of the find spread, and Bedouins and archaeologists eventually unearthed tens of thousands of additional scroll fragments from 10 nearby caves; together they make up between 800 and 900 manuscripts. It soon became clear that this was one of the greatest archaeological discoveries ever made. The origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which were written around 2,000 years ago between 150 BCE and 70 CE, is still the subject of scholarly debate even today. According to the prevailing theory, they are the work of a population that inhabited the area until Roman troops destroyed the settlement around 70 CE. The area was known as Judea at that time, and the people are thought to have belonged to a group called the Essenes, a devout Jewish sect. The majority of the texts on the Dead Sea Scrolls are in Hebrew, with some fragments written in an ancient version of its alphabet thought to have fallen out of use in the fifth century BCE. Bu’ there are other languages as well. Some scrolls are in Aramaic, the language spoken by many inhabitants of the region from the sixth century BCE to the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. In addition, several texts feature translations of the Hebrew Bible into Greek. The Dead Sea Scrolls include fragments from every book of the Old Testament of the Bible except for the Book of Esther. The only entire book of the Hebrew Bible preserved among the manuscripts from Qumran is Isaiah; this copy, dated to the first century BCE, is considered the earliest biblical manuscript still in existence. Along with biblical texts, the scrolls include documents about sectarian regulations and religious writings that do not appear in the Old Testament. The writing on the Dead Sea Scrolls is mostly in black or occasionally red ink, and the scrolls themselves are nearly all made of either parchment (animal skin) or an early form of paper called ‘papyrus’. The only exception is the scroll numbered 3Q15, which was created out of a combination of copper and tin. Known as the Copper Scroll, this curious document features letters chiselled onto metal – perhaps, as some have theorized, to better withstand the passage of time. One of the most intriguing manuscripts from Qumran, this is a sort of ancient treasure map that lists dozens of gold and silver caches. Using an unconventional vocabulary and odd spelling, it describes 64 underground hiding places that supposedly contain riches buried for safekeeping. None of these hoards have been recovered, possibly because the Romans pillaged Judea during the first century CE. According to various hypotheses, the treasure belonged to local people, or was rescued from the Second Temple before its destruction or never existed to begin with. Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls have been on interesting journeys. In 1948, a Syrian Orthodox archbishop known as Mar Samuel acquired four of the original seven scrolls from a Jerusalem shoemaker and part-time antiquity dealer, paying less than $100 for them. He then travelled to the United States and unsuccessfully offered them to a number of universities, including Yale. Finally, in 19M, he placed an advertisement in the business newspaper The Wall Street Journal’ – under the category ‘Miscellaneous Items for Sale’ – that read: ‘Biblical Manuscripts : dating back to at least 200 B.C. are for sale. This would be an ideal gift to an educational or religious institution by an individual or group.’ Fortunately, Israeli archaeologist and statesman Yigael Yadin negotiated their purchase and brought the scrolls back to Jerusalem, where they remain to this day. In 2017, researchers from the University of Haifa restored and deciphered one of the last untranslated scrolls. The university’s Eshbal Ratson and Jonathan Ben-Dov spent one year reassembling the 60 fragments that make up the scroll. Deciphered from a band of coded text on parchment, the find provides insight into the community of people who wrote it and the 364-day calendar they would have used. The scroll names celebrations that indicate shifts in seasons and details two yearly religious events known from another Dead Sea Scroll. Only one more known scroll remains untranslated. Questions 1-5 Complete the notes below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. The Dead Sea Scrolls Discovery Qumran, 1946/7 • three Bedouin shepherds in their teens were near an opening on side of cliff • heard a noise of breaking when one teenager threw a (1) ……………………. • teenagers went into the (2) …………………. and found a number of containers made of (3) ……………….. The scrolls • date from between 150 BCE and 70 CE • thought to have been written by group of people known as the (4) …………………. • written mainly in the (5) …………………. language • most are on religious topics, written using ink on parchment or papyrus Questions 6-13 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In boxes 6-13 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 6. The Bedouin teenagers who found the scrolls were disappointed by how little money they received for them. 7. There is agreement among academics about the origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls. 8. Most of the books of the Bible written on the scrolls are incomplete. 9. The information on the Copper Scroll is written in an unusual way. 10. Mar Samuel was given some of the scrolls as a gift. 11. In the early 1950s, a number of educational establishments in the US were keen to buy scrolls from Mar Samuel. 12. The scroll that was pieced together in 2017 contains information about annual occasions in the Qumran area 2.000 yea-s ago. 13. Academics at the University of Haifa are currently researching how to decipher the final scroll. A second attempt at domesticating the tomato A It took at least 3,000 years for humans to learn how to domesticate the wild tomato and cultivate it for food. Now two separate teams in Brazil and China have done it all over again in less than three years. And they have done it better in some ways, as the re-domesticated tomatoes are more nutritious than the ones we eat at present. This approach relies on the revolutionary CRISPR genome editing technique, in which changes are deliberately made to the DNA of a living cell, allowing genetic material to be added, removed or altered. The technique could not only improve existing crops, but could also be used to turn thousands of wild plants into useful and appealing foods. In fact, a third team in the US has already begun to do this with a relative of the tomato called the groundcherry. This fast-track domestication could help make the world’s food supply healthier and far more resistant to diseases, such as the ‘us fungus devastating wheat crops. ‘This could transform what we eat,’ says Jo-g Kudla at the University of Munster in Germany, a member of the Brazilian team. ‘There are 50,000 edible plants in the world, but 90 percent of our energy comes from just 15 crops.’ ‘We can now mimic the known domestication course of major crops like rice, maize, sorghum or others,’ says Caixia Gao of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing. ‘Then we might try to domesticate plants that have never been domesticated.’ B Wild tomatoes, which, are native to the Andes region in South America, produce pea-sized fruits. many generations, peoples such as the Aztecs and Incas transformed the pint by selecting and breeding plants with mutations in their genetic structure, which resulted in desirable traits such as larger fruit. But every time a single plant with a mutation is taken from a larger population for breeding, much genetic diversity is lost. And sometimes the desirable mutations come with less desirable traits. For instance, the tomato strains grown for supermarkets have lost much of their flavour. By comparing the genomes of modern plants to those of their wild relatives, biologists have been working out what genetic changes occurred as plants were domesticated. The teams in Brazil and China have now used this knowledge to reintroduce these changes from scratch while maintaining or even enhancing the desirable traits of wild strains. C Kudla’s team made six changes altogether. For instance, they tripled the size of fruit by editing a gene called FRUIT WEIGHT, and increased the number of tomatoes per truss by editing another called MULTIFLORA. While the historical domestication of tomatoes reduced levels of the red pigment lycopene – thought to have potential health benefits – the team in Brazil managed to boost it instead. The wild tomato has twice as much lycopene as cultivated ones; the newly domesticated one has five times as much. ‘They are quite tasty,’ says Kudla. ‘A little bit strong. And very aromatic.’ The team in China re-domesticated several strains of wild tomatoes with desirable traits lost in domesticated tomatoes. In this way they managed to create a strain resistant to a common disease called bacterial spot race, which can devastate yields. They also created another strain that is more salt tolerant – and has higher levels of vitamin C. D Meanwhile, Joyce Van Eck at the Boyce Thompson Institute in New York state decided to use the same approach to domesticate the groundcherry or goldenberry (Physalis pruinosa) for the first time. This fruit looks similar to the closely related Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana). Groundcherries are already sold to a limited extent in the US but they are hard to produce because the plant has a sprawling growth habit and the small fruits fall off the branches when ripe. Van Ecks team has edited the plants to increase fruit size, make their growth more compact and to stop fruits dropping. ‘There’s potential for this to be a commercial e^,’ says Van Eck. But she adds that taking the work further would be expensive because of the need to pay for a licence for the CRISPR technology and get regulatory approval. E This approach could boost the use of many obscure plants, says Jonathan Jones of the Sainsbury Lab in the UK. But it will be hard for new foods to grow so popular with farmers and consumers that they become new staple crops, he thinks. The three teams already have their eye on other plants that could be ‘catapulted into the mainstream’, including foxtail, oat-grass and cowpea. By choosing wild plants that are drought or heat tolerant, says Gao, we could create crops that will thrive even as the planet warms. But Kudla didn’t want to reveal which species were in his team’s sights, because CRISPR has made the process so easy. ‘Any one with the right skills could go to their lab and do this.’ Questions 14-18 Reading Passage has five sections, A-E. Which section contains the following information? Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet. NB You may use any letter more than once. 14. a reference to a type of tomato that can resist a dangerous infection 15. an explanation of how problems can arise from focusing only on a certain type of tomato plant. 16. a number of examples of plants that are not cultivated at present but could be useful as food sources 17. a comparison between the early domestication of the tomato and more recent research 18. a personal reaction to the flavour of a tomato that has been genetically edited Questions 19-23 Look at the following statements (Questions 19-23) and the list of researchers below. Match each statement with the correct researcher, A-D. Write the correct letter, A-D, in boxes 19-23 on your answer sheet. NB You may use any letter more than once. 19. Domestication of certain plants could allow them to adapt to future environmental challenges. 20. The idea of growing and eating unusual plants may not be accepted on a large scale. 21. It is not advisable for the future direction of certain research to be made public. 22. Present efforts to domesticate one wild fruit are limited by the costs involved. 23. Humans only make use of a small proportion of the plant food available on Earth. List of Researchers A Jorg Kudla B Caixia Gao C Joyce Van Eck D Jonathan Jones Questions 24-26 Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 24-26 on your answer sheet. 24. An undesirable trait such as loss of …………………. may be caused by a mutation in a tomato gene. 25. By modifying one gene in a tomato plant, researchers made the tomato three times its original …………… 26. A type of tomato which was not badly affected by …………………… and was rich in vitamin C, was produced by a team of researchers in China. Insight or evolution? Two scientists consider the origins of discoveries and other innovative behavior Scientific discovery is popularly believed to result from the sheer genius of such intellectual stars as naturalist Charles Darwin and theoretical physicist Albert Einstein. Our view of such unique contributions to science often disregards the person’s prior experience and the efforts of their lesser-known predecessors. Conventional wisdom also places great weight on insight in promoting breakthrough scientific achievements, as if ideas spontaneously pop into someone’s head – fully formed and functional. There may be some limited truth to this view. However, we believe that it largely misrepresents the real nature of scientific discovery, as well as that of creativity and innovation in many other realms of human endeavor. Setting aside such greats as Darwin and Einstein – whose monumental contributions are duly celebrated – we suggest that innovation is more a process of trial and error, where two steps forward may sometimes come with one step back, as well as one or more steps to the right or left. This evolutionary view of human innovation undermines the notion of creative genius and recognizes the cumulative nature of scientific progress. Consider one unheralded scientist John Nicholson, a mathematical physicist working in the 1910s who postulated the existence of ‘proto-elements’ in outer space. By combining different numbers of weights of these proto-elements’ atoms, Nicholson could recover the weights of all the elements in the then-known periodic table. These successes are all the more noteworthy given the fact that Nicholson was wrong about the presence of proto-elements: they do not actually exist. Yet, amid his often fanciful theories and wild speculations, Nicholson also proposed a novel theory about the structure of atoms. Niels Bohr, the Nobel prize-winning father of modern atomic theory, jumped off from this interesting idea to conceive his now-famous model of the atom. What are we to make of this story? One might simply conclude that science is a collective and cumulative enterprise. That may be true, but there may be a deeper insight to be gleaned. We propose that science is constantly evolving, much as species of animals do. In biological systems, organisms may display new characteristics that result from random genetic mutations. In the same way, random, arbitrary or accidental mutations of ideas may help pave the way for advances in science. If mutations prove beneficial, then the animal or the scientific theory will continue to thrive and perhaps reproduce. Support for this evolutionary view of behavioral innovation comes from many domains. Consider one example of an influential innovation in US horseracing. The so-called ‘acey-deucy’ stirrup placement, in which the rider’s foot in his left stirrup is placed as much as 25 centimeters lower than the right, is believed to confer important speed advantages when turning on oval tracks. It was developed by a relatively unknown jockey named Jackie Westrope. Had Westrope conducted methodical investigations or examined extensive film records in a shrewd plan to outrun his rivals? Had he foreseen the speed advantage that would be conferred by riding acey-deucy? No. He suffered a leg injury, which left him unable to fully bend his left knee. His modification just happened to coincide with enhanced left-hand turning performance. This led to the rapid and widespread adoption of riding acey-deucy by many riders, a racing style which continues in today’s thoroughbred racing. Plenty of other stories show that fresh advances can arise from error, misadventure, and also pure serendipity – a happy accident. For example, in the early 1970s, two employees of the company 3M each had a problem: Spencer Silver had a product – a glut which was only slightly sticky – and no use for it, while his colleague Art Fry was trying to figure out how to affix temporary bookmarks in his hymn book without damaging its pages. The solution to both these problems was the invention of the brilliantly simple yet phenomenally successful Post-It note. Such examples give lie to the claim that ingenious, designing minds are responsible for human creativity and invention. Far more banal and mechanical forces may be at work; forces that are fundamentally connected to the laws of science. The notions of insight, creativity and genius are often invoked, but they remain vague and of doubtful scientific utility, especially when one considers the diverse and enduring contributions of individuals such as Plato, Leonardo da Vinci, Shakespeare, Beethoven, Galileo, Newton, Kepler, Curie, Pasteur and Edison. These notions merely label rather than explain the evolution of human innovations. We need another approach, and there is a promising candidate. The Law of Effect was advanced by psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1898, some 40 years after Charles Darwin published his ground breaking work on biological evolution, On the Origin of Species. This simple law holds that organisms tend to repeat successful behaviors and to refrain from performing unsuccessful ones. Just like Darwin’s Law of Natural Selection, the Law of Effect involves a entirely mechanical process of variation and selection, without any end objective in sight. Of course, the origin of human innovation demands much further study. In particular, the provenance of the raw material on which the Law of Effect operates is not as clearly known as that of the genetic mutations on which the Law of Natural Selection operates. The generation of novel ideas and behaviors may not be entirely random, but constrained by prior successes and failures – of the current individual (such as Bohr) or of predecessors (such as Nicholson). The time seems right for abandoning the naive notions of intelligent design and genius, and for scientifically exploring the true origins of creative behavior. Questions 27-31 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 27. The purpose of the first paragraph is to A defend particular ideas. B compare certain beliefs. C disprove a widely held view. D outline a common assumption. 28 What are the writers doing in the second A criticising an opinion B justifying a standpoint C explaining an approach D supporting an argument 29. In the third paragraph, what do the writers suggest about Darwin and Einstein? A They represent an exception to a general rule. B Their way of working has been misunderstood. C They are an ideal which others should aspire to. D Their achievements deserve greater recognition. 30. John Nicholson is an example of a person whose idea A established his reputation as an influential scientist. B was only fully understood at a later point in history. C laid the foundation for someone else’s breakthrough. D initially met with scepticism from the scientific community. 31. What is the key point of interest about the ‘acey-deucy’ stirrup placement? A the simple reason why it was invented B the enthusiasm with which it was adopted C the research that went into its development D the cleverness of the person who first used it Questions 32-36 Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage? In boxes 32-36 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 32. Acknowledging people such as Plato or da Vinci as geniuses will help us understand the process by which great minds create new ideas. 33. The Law of Effect was discovered at a time when psychologies were seeking a scientific reason why creativity occurs. 34. The Law of Effect states that no planning is involved in the behaviour of organisms. 35. The Law of Effect sets out clear explanations about sources of new ideas and behaviours. 36. Many scientists are now turning away from the notion of intelligent design and genius. Questions 37-40 Complete the summary using the list of words, A-G, below. Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet. The origins of creative behaviour The traditional view of scientific discovery is that breakthroughs happen when a single great mind has sudden (37) ………………….. Although this can occur, it is not often the case. Advances are more likely to be the result of a longer process. In some cases, this process involves (38) ………………… , such as Nicholson’s theory about proto-elements. In others, simple necessity may provoke innovation, as with Westrope’s decision to modify the position of his riding stirrups. There is also often an element of (39) …………………….. , for example, the coincidence of ideas that led to the invention of the Post-It note. With both the Law of Natural Selection and the Law of Effect, there may be no clear (40) …………………….. involved, but merely a process of variation and selection. A invention B goals C compromise D mistakes E luck F inspiration G experiments Answers 1. Rock 2. Cave 3. Clay 4. Essenes 5. Hebrew 6. Not given 7. False 8. True 9. True 10. False 11. False 12. True 13. Not given 14. C 15. B 16. E 17. A 18. C 19. B 20. D 21. A 22. C 23. A 24. Falvour/ flavor 25. Size 26. Salt 27. D 28. A 29. A 30. C 31. A 32. No 33. Not given 34. Yes 35. No 36. Not given 37. F 38. D 39. E 40. B

ALBERT EINSTEIN Albert Einstein is perhaps the best-known scientist of the 20th century. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 and his theories of special and general relativity are of great importance to many branches of physics and astronomy. He is well known for his theories about light, matter, gravity, space and time. His most famous idea is that energy and mass are different forms of the same thing. Einstein was born in Wurttemberg, Germany on 14th March 1879. His family was Jewish but he had not been very religious in his youth although he became very interested in Judaism in later life. It is well documented that Einstein did not begin speaking until after the age of three. In fact, he found speaking so difficult that his family were worried that he would never start to speak. When Einstein was four years old, his father gave him a magnetic compass. It was this compass that inspired him to explore the world of science. He wanted to understand why the needle always pointed north whichever way he turned the compass. It looked as if the needle was moving itself. But the needle was inside a closed case, so no other force (such as the wind) could have been moving it. And this is how Einstein became interested in studying science and mathematics. In fact, he was so clever that at the age of 12 he taught himself Euclidean geometry. At fifteen, he went to school in Munich which he found very boring. he finished secondary school in Aarau, Switzerland and entered the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich from which he graduated in 1900. But Einstein did not like the teaching there either. He often missed classes and used the time to study physics on his own or to play the violin instead. However, he was able to pass his examinations by studying the notes of a classmate. His teachers did not have a good opinion of him and refused to recommend him for a university position. So, he got a job in a patent office in Switzerland. While he was working there, he wrote the papers that first made him famous as a great scientist. Einstein had two severely disabled children with his first wife, Mileva. His daughter (whose name we do not know) was born about a year before their marriage in January 1902. She was looked after by her Serbian grandparents until she died at the age of two. It is generally believed that she died from scarlet fever but there are those who believe that she may have suffered from a disorder known as Down Syndrome. But there is not enough evidence to know for sure. In fact, no one even knew that she had existed until Einstein’s granddaughter found 54 love letters that Einstein and Mileva had written to each other between 1897 and 1903. She found these letters inside a shoe box in their attic in California. Einstein and Mileva’s son, Eduard, was diagnosed with schizophrenia. He spent decades in hospitals and died in Zurich in 1965. Just before the start of World War I, Einstein moved back to Germany and became director of a school there. But in 1933, following death threats from the Nazis, he moved to the United States, where he died on 18th April 1955. Questions 1-8 Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text? For questions 1-8, write: TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 1. The general theory of relativity is a very important theory in modern physics. 2. Einstein had such difficulty with language that those around him thought he would never learn how to speak. 3. It seemed to Einstein that nothing could be pushing the needle of the compass around except the wind. 4. Einstein enjoyed the teaching methods in Switzerland. 5. Einstein taught himself how to play the violin. 6. His daughter died of schizophrenia when she was two. 7. The existence of a daughter only became known to the world between 1897 and 1903. 8. In 1933 Einstein moved to the United States where he became an American citizen. Questions 9-10 Complete the sentences below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the text for each answer. He tried hard to understand how the needle could seem to move itself so that it always (9)………………. He often did not go to classes and used the time to study physics (10)…………………..or to play music. Questions 11-13 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 11. The name of Einstein’s daughter A was not chosen by him. B is a mystery. C is shared by his granddaughter. D was discovered in a shoe box. 12. His teachers would not recommend him for a university position because A they did not think highly of him. B they thought he was a Nazi. C his wife was Serbian. D he seldom skipped classes. 13. The famous physicist Albert Einstein was of A Swiss origin. B Jewish origin. C American origin. D Austrian origin. DRINKING FILTERED WATER A The body is made up mainly of water. This means that the quality of water that we drink every day has an important effect on our health. Filtered water is healthier than tap water and some bottled water. This is because it is free of contaminants, that is, of substances that make it dirty or harmful. Substances that settle on the bottom of a glass of tap water and microorganisms that carry diseases (known as bacteria or germs) are examples of contaminants. Filtered water is also free of poisonous metals and chemicals that are common in tap water and even in some bottled water brands. B The authorities know that normal tap water is full of contaminants and they use chemicals, such as chlorine and bromine in order to disinfect it. But such chemicals are hardly safe. Indeed, their use in water is associated with many different conditions and they are particularly dangerous for children and pregnant women. For example, consuming bromine for a long time may result in low blood pressure, which may then bring about poisoning of the brain, heart, kidneys and liver. Filtered water is typically free of such water disinfectant chemicals. C Filtered water is also free of metals, such as mercury and lead. Mercury has ended up in our drinking water mainly because the dental mixtures used by dentists have not been disposed of safely for a long time. Scientists believe there is a connection between mercury in the water and many allergies and cancers as well as disorders, such as ADD, OCD, autism and depression. D Lead, on the other hand, typically finds its way to our drinking water due to pipe leaks. Of course, modern pipes are not made of lead but pipes in old houses usually are. Lead is a well-known carcinogen and is associated with pregnancy problems and birth defects. This is another reason why children and pregnant women must drink filtered water. E The benefits of water are well known. We all know, for example, that it helps to detoxify the body, So, the purer the water we drink, the easier it is for the body to rid itself of toxins. The result of drinking filtered water is that the body does not have to use as much of its energy on detoxification as it would when drinking unfiltered water. This means that drinking filtered water is good for our health in general. That is because the body can perform all of its functions much more easily and this results in improved metabolism, better weight management, improved joint lubrication as well as efficient skin hydration. F There are many different ways to filter water and each type of filter targets different contaminants. For example, activated carbon water filters are very good at taking chlorine out. Ozone water filters, on the other hand, are particularly effective at removing germs. G For this reason, it is very important to know exactly what is in the water that we drink so that we can decide what type of water filter to use. A Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) should be useful for this purpose. This is a certificate that is issued by public water suppliers every year, listing the contaminants present in the water. If you know what these contaminants are, then it is easier to decide which type of water filter to get. Questions 14-20 The text has seven paragraphs, A-G. Which paragraph contains the following information? 14. a short summary of the main points of the text 15. a variety of methods used for water filtration 16. making it easier for the body to get rid of dangerous chemicals 17. finding out which contaminants your water filter should target 18. allergies caused by dangerous metals 19. a dangerous metal found in the plumbing of old buildings 20. chemicals of cleaning products that destroy bacteria Questions 21-26 Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text? For questions 21-26, write: TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 21. The type of water you consume on a regular basis has a great impact on your overall health and wellness. 22. Filtered water typically contains water disinfectant chemicals. 23. Exposure to disinfectant chemicals is linked with poisoning of the vital organs. 24. Drinking tap water helps minimise your exposure to harmful elements. 25. People wearing artificial teeth are more likely to be contaminated. 26. People who are depressed often suffer from dehydration. SPEECH DYSFLUENCY AND POPULAR FILLERS A speech dysfluency is any of various breaks, irregularities or sound-filled pauses that we make when we are speaking, which are commonly known as fillers. These include words and sentences that are not finished, repeated phrases or syllables, instances of speakers correcting their own mistakes as they speak and “words” such as ‘huh’, ‘uh’, ‘erm’, ‘urn’, ‘hmm’, ‘err’, ‘like’, ‘you know’ and ‘well’. Fillers are parts of speech which are not generally recognised as meaningful and they include speech problems, such as stuttering (repeating the first consonant of some words). Fillers are normally avoided on television and films, but they occur quite regularly in everyday conversation, sometimes making up more than 20% of “words” in speech. But they can also be used as a pause for thought. Research in linguistics has shown that fillers change across cultures and that even the different English speaking nations use different fillers. For example, Americans use pauses such as ‘um’ or ’em’ whereas the British say ‘uh’ or ‘eh’. Spanish speakers say ‘ehhh’ and in Latin America (where they also speak Spanish) but not Spain, ‘este’ is used (normally meaning ‘this’). Recent linguistic research has suggested that the use of ‘uh’ and ‘um’ in English is connected to the speaker’s mental and emotional state. For example, while pausing to say ‘uh’ or ‘um’ the brain may be planning the use of future words. According to the University of Pennsylvania linguist Mark Liberman, ‘um’ generally comes before a longer or more important pause than ‘uh’. At least that’s what he used to think. Liberman has discovered that as Americans get older, they use ‘uh’ more than ‘um’ and that men use ‘uh’ more than women no matter their age. But the opposite is true of ‘um’. The young say ‘um’ more often than the old. And women say ‘um’ more often than men at every age. This was an unexpected result because scientists used to think that fillers had to do more with the amount of time a speaker pauses for, rather than with who the speaker is. Liberman mentioned his finding to fellow linguists in the Netherlands and this encouraged the group to look for a pattern outside American English. They studied British and Scottish English, German, Danish, Dutch and Norwegian and found that women and younger people said ‘um’ more than ‘uh’ in those languages as well. Their conclusion is that it is simply a case of language change in progress and that women and younger people are leading the change. And there is nothing strange about this. Women and young people normally are the typical pioneers of most language change. What is strange, however, is that ‘um’ is replacing ‘uh’ across at least two continents and five Germanic languages. Now this really is a mystery. The University of Edinburgh sociolinguist Josef Fruehwald may have an answer. In his view, ‘um’ and ‘uh’ are pretty much equivalent. The fact that young people and women prefer it is not significant. This often happens in language when there are two options. People start using one more often until the other is no longer an option. It’s just one of those things. As to how such a trend might have gone from one language to another, there is a simple explanation, according to Fruehwald. English is probably influencing the other languages. We all know that in many countries languages are constantly borrowing words and expressions of English into their own language so why not borrow fillers, too? Of course, we don’t know for a fact whether that’s actually what’s happening with ‘um’ but it is a likely story. Questions 27-34 Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text? For questions 27-34, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 27. Fillers are usually expressed as pauses and probably have no linguistic meaning although they may have a purpose. 28. In general, fillers vary across cultures. 29. Fillers are uncommon in everyday language. 30. American men use ‘uh’ more than American women do. 31. Younger Spaniards say ‘ehhh’ more often than older Spaniards. 32. In the past linguists did not think that fillers are about the amount of time a speaker hesitates. 33. During a coffee break Liberman was chatting with a small group of researchers. 34. Fruehwald does not believe that there are age and gender differences related to ‘um’ and ‘uh’. Questions 35-40 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 35. Fillers are not A used to give the speaker time to think. B phrases that are restated. C used across cultures. D popular with the media. 36. It had originally seemed to Mark Liberman that A ‘um’ was followed by a less significant pause than ‘uh’. B ‘uh’ was followed by a shorter pause than ‘um’. C ‘uh’ was followed by a longer pause than ‘um’. D the use of ‘um’ meant the speaker was sensitive. 37. Contrary to what linguists used to think, it is now believed that the choice of filler A may have led to disagreements. B depends on the characteristics of the speaker. C has nothing to do with sex. D only matters to older people. 38. According to Liberman, it’s still a puzzle why A a specific language change is so widely spread. B the two fillers are comparable. C we have two options. D ‘um’ is preferred by women and young people. 39. Concerning the normal changes that all languages go through as time goes by, A old men are impossible to teach. B men in general are very conservative. C young men simply copy the speech of young women. D women play a more important role than men. 40. According to Fruehwald, the fact that ‘um’ is used more than ‘uh’ A proves that ‘um’ is less important. B shows that young people have low standards. C shows that they have different meanings. D is just a coincidence. Hide Answers 1. True 2. True 3. False 4. False 5. NG 6. NG 7. False 8. NG 9. Pointed north 10. On his own 11. B 12. A 13. B 14. A 15. F 16. E 17. G 18. C 19. D 20. B 21. True 22. False 23. True 24. False 25. NG 26. NG 27. True 28. True 29. False 30. True 31. NG 32. False 33. NG 34. False 35. D 36. B 37. B 38. A 39. D 40. D

The Rufous Hare-Wallaby The Rufous Hare-Wallaby is a species of Australian kangaroo, usually known by its Aboriginal name, ‘mala’. At one time, there may have been as many as ten million of these little animals across the arid and semi-arid landscape of Australia, but their populations, like those of so many other small endemic species, were devastated when cats and foxes were introduced – indeed, during the 1950s it was thought that the mala was extinct. But in 1964, a small colony was found 450 miles northwest of Alice Springs in the Tanami Desert. And 12 years later, a second small colony was found nearby. Very extensive surveys were made throughout historical mala range – but no other traces were found. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, scientists from the Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory monitored these two populations. At first it seemed that they were holding their own. Then in late 1987, every one of the individuals of the second and smaller of the wild colonies was killed. From examination of the tracks in the sand, it seemed that just one single fox had been responsible. And then, in October 1991, a wild-fire destroyed the entire area occupied by the remaining colony. Thus the mala was finally pronounced extinct in the wild. Fortunately, ten years earlier, seven individuals had been captured, and had become the founders of a captive breeding programme at the Arid Zone Research Institute in Alice Springs; and that group had thrived. Part of this success is due to the fact that the female can breed when she is just five months old and can produce up to three young a year. Like other kangaroo species, the mother carries her young – known as a joey – in her pouch for about 15 weeks, and she can have more than one joey at the same time. In the early 1980s, there were enough mala in the captive population to make it feasible to start a reintroduction programme. But first it was necessary to discuss this with the leaders of the Yapa people. Traditionally, the mala had been an important animal in their culture, with strong medicinal powers for old people. It had also been an important food source, and there were concerns that any mala returned to the wild would be killed for the pot. And so, in 1980, a group of key Yapa men was invited to visit the proposed reintroduction area. The skills and knowledge of the Yapa would play a significant and enduring role in this and all other mala projects. With the help of the local Yapa, an electric fence was erected around 250 acres of suitable habitat, about 300 miles’ northwest of Alice Springs so that the mala could adapt while protected from predators. By 1992, there were about 150 mala in their enclosure, which became known as the Mala Paddock. However, all attempts to reintroduce mala from the paddocks into the unfenced wild were unsuccessful, so in the end the reintroduction programme was abandoned. The team now faced a situation where mala could be bred, but not released into the wild again. Thus, in 1993, a Mala Recovery Team was established to boost mala numbers, and goals for a new programme were set: the team concentrated on finding suitable predator-free or predator-controlled conservation sites within the mala’s known range. Finally, in March 1999, twelve adult females, eight adult males, and eight joeys were transferred from the Mala Paddock to Dryandra Woodland in Western Australia. Then, a few months later, a second group was transferred to Trimouille, an island off the coast of western Australia. First, it had been necessary to rid the island of rats and cats – a task that had taken two years of hard work. Six weeks after their release into this conservation site, a team returned to the island to find out how things were going. Each of the malas had been fitted with a radio collar that transmits for about 14 months, after which it falls off. The team was able to locate 29 out of the 30 transmitters – only one came from the collar of a mala that had died of unknown causes. So far the recovery programme had gone even better than expected. Today, there are many signs suggesting that the mala population on the island is continuing to do well. Questions 1-5 Complete the flow chart below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer. The Wild Australian mala • Distant past: total population of up to (1)……………………..in desert and semi-desert regions • Populations of malas were destroyed by (2)……………………. • 1964/1976: two surviving colonies were discovered • Scientists (3)……………………….the colonies • 1987: one of the colonies was completely destroyed • 1991: the other colony was destroyed by (4)……………………… • The wild mala was declared (5)……………….. Questions 6-9 Answer the questions below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer. 6. At what age can female malas start breeding? 7. For about how long do young malas stay inside their mother’s pouch? 8. Apart from being a food source, what value did malas have for the Yapa people? 9. What was the Yapa’s lasting contribution to the mala reintroduction programme? Questions 10-13 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? Write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN If there is no information on this 10. Natural defences were sufficient to protect the area called Mala Paddock. 11. Scientists eventually gave up their efforts to release captive mala into the unprotected wild. 12. The mala population which was transferred to Dryandra Woodland quickly increased in size. 13. Scientists were satisfied with the initial results of the recovery programme. Measures to combat infectious disease in tsarist Russia A In the second half of the seventeenth century, Russian authorities began implementing controls at the borders of their empire to prevent the importation of plague, a highly infectious and dangerous disease. Information on disease outbreak occurring abroad was regularly reported to the tsar’s court through various means, including commercial channels (travelling merchants), military personnel deployed abroad, undercover agents, the network of Imperial Foreign Office embassies and representations abroad, and the customs offices. For instance, the heads of customs offices were instructed to question foreigners entering Russia about possible epidemics of dangerous diseases in their respective countries. B If news of an outbreak came from abroad, relations with the affected country were suspended. For instance, foreign vessels were not allowed to dock in Russian ports if there was credible information about the existence of epidemics in countries from whence they had departed. In addition, all foreigners entering Russia from those countries had to undergo quarantine. In 1665, after receiving news about a plague epidemic in England, Tsar Alexei wrote a letter to King Charles II in which he announced the cessation of Russian trade relations with England and other foreign states. These protective measures appeared to have been effective, as the country did not record any cases of plague during that year and in the next three decades. It was not until 1692 that another plague outbreak was recorded in the Russian province of Astrakhan. This epidemic continued for five months and killed 10,383 people, or about 65 percent of the city’s population. By the end of the seventeenth century, preventative measures had been widely introduced in Russia, including the isolation of persons ill with plague, the imposition of quarantines, and the distribution of explanatory public health notices about plague outbreaks. C During the eighteenth century, although none of the occurrences was of the same scale as in the past, plague appeared in Russia several times. For instance, from 1703 to 1705, a plague outbreak that had ravaged Istanbul spread to the Podolsk and Kiev provinces in Russia, and then to Poland and Hungary. After defeating the Swedes in the battle of Poltava in 1709, Tsar Peter I (Peter the Great) dispatched part of his army to Poland, where plague had been raging for two years. Despite preventive measures, the disease spread among the Russian troops. In 1710, the plague reached Riga (then part of Sweden, now the capital of Latvia), where it was active until 1711 and claimed 60,000 lives. During this period, the Russians besieged Riga and, after the Swedes had surrendered the city in 1710, the Russian army lost 9.800 soldiers to the plague. Russian military chronicles of the time note that more soldiers died of the disease after the capture of Riga than from enemy fire during the siege of that city. D Tsar Peter I imposed strict measures to prevent the spread of plague during these conflicts. Soldiers suspected of being infected were isolated and taken to areas far from military camps. In addition, camps were designed to separate divisions, detachments, and smaller units of soldiers. When plague reached Narva (located in present-day Estonia) and threatened to spread to St. Petersburg, the newly built capital of Russia, Tsar Peter I ordered the army to cordon off the entire boundary along the Luga River, including temporarily halting all activity on the river. In order to prevent the movement of people and goods from Narva to St Petersburg and Novgorod, roadblocks and checkpoints were set up on all roads. The tsar’s orders were rigorously enforced, and those who disobeyed were hung. E However, although the Russian authorities applied such methods to contain the spread of the disease and limit the number of victims, all of the measures had a provisional character: they were intended to respond to a specific outbreak, and were not designed as a coherent set of measures to be implemented systematically at the first sign of plague. The advent of such a standard response system came a few years later. F The first attempts to organise procedures and carry out proactive steps to control plague date to the aftermath of the 1727- 1728 epidemic in Astrakhan. In response to this, the Russian imperial authorities issued several decrees aimed at controlling the future spread of plague. Among these decrees, the ‘Instructions for Governors and Heads of Townships’ required that all governors immediately inform the Senate – a government body created by Tsar Peter I in 1711 to advise the monarch – if plague cases were detected in their respective provinces. Furthermore, the decree required that governors ensure the physical examination of all persons suspected of carrying the disease and their subsequent isolation. In addition, it was ordered that sites where plague victims were found had to be encircled by checkpoints and isolated for the duration of the outbreak. These checkpoints were to remain operational for at least six weeks. The houses of infected persons were to be burned along with all of the personal property they contained, including farm animals and cattle. The governors were instructed to inform the neighbouring provinces and cities about every plague case occurring on their territories. Finally, letters brought by couriers were heated above a fire before being copied. G The implementation by the authorities of these combined measures demonstrates their intuitive understanding of the importance of the timely isolation of infected people to limit the spread of plague. Questions 14-19 Reading Passage 2 has SEVEN sections, A-G. Choose the correct heading for sections A-F from the list of headings below. List of Headings i Outbreaks of plague as a result of military campaigns. ii Systematic intelligence-gathering about external cases of plague. iii Early forms of treatment for plague victims. iv The general limitations of early Russian anti-plague measures. v Partly successful bans against foreign states affected by plague. vi Hostile reactions from foreign states to Russian anti-plague measures. vii Various measures to limit outbreaks of plague associated with war. viii The formulation and publication of preventive strategies. 14. Section A 15. Section B 16. Section C 17. Section D 18. Section E 19. Section F Questions 20-21 Choose TWO letters, A—E. Which TWO measures did Russia take in the seventeenth century to avoid plague outbreaks? A cooperation with foreign leaders B spying C military campaigns D restrictions on access to its ports E expulsion of foreigners Questions 22-23 Choose TWO letters, A-E. Which TWO statements are made about Russia in the early eighteenth century? A plague outbreaks were consistently smaller than before B military casualties at Riga exceeded the number of plague victims C the design of military camps allowed plague to spread quickly D the tsar’s plan to protect St Petersburg from plague was not strictly implemented E anti-plague measures were generally reactive rather than strategic Questions 24-26 Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. An outbreak of plague in (24)…………………….prompted the publication of a coherent preventative strategy. Provincial governors were ordered to burn the (25)………………….and possessions of plague victims. Correspondence was held over a (26)…………………….prior to copying it. Recovering a damaged reputation In 2009, it was revealed that some of the information published by the University of East Anglia’s Climatic Research Unit (CRU) in the UK, concerning climate change, had been inaccurate. Furthermore, it was alleged that some of the relevant statistics had been withheld from publication. The ensuing controversy affected the reputation not only of that institution, but also of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), with which the CRU is closely involved, and of climate scientists in general. Even if the claims of misconduct and incompetence were eventually proven to be largely untrue, or confined to a few individuals, the damage was done. The perceived wrongdoings of a few people had raised doubts about the many. The response of most climate scientists was to cross their fingers and hope for the best, and they kept a low profile. Many no doubt hoped that subsequent independent inquiries into the IPCC and CRU would draw a line under their problems. However, although these were likely to help, they were unlikely to undo the harm caused by months of hostile news reports and attacks by critics. The damage that has been done should not be underestimated. As Ralph Cicerone, the President of the US National Academy of Sciences, wrote in an editorial in the journal Science: ‘Public opinion has moved toward the view that scientists often try to suppress alternative hypotheses and ideas and that scientists will withhold data and try to manipulate some aspects of peer review to prevent dissent.’ He concluded that ‘the perceived misbehavior of even a few scientists can diminish the credibility of science as a whole.’ An opinion poll taken at the beginning of 2010 found that the proportion of people in the US who trust scientists as a source of information about global warming had dropped from 83 percent, in 2008, to 74 percent. Another survey carried out by the British Broadcasting Corporation in February 2010 found that just 26 percent of British people now believe that climate change is confirmed as being largely human-made, down from 41 percent in November 2009. Regaining the confidence and trust of the public is never easy. Hunkering down and hoping for the best – climate science’s current strategy – makes it almost impossible. It is much better to learn from the successes and failures of organisations that have dealt with similar blows to their public standing. In fact, climate science needs professional help to rebuild its reputation. It could do worse than follow the advice given by Leslie Gaines-Ross, a ‘reputation strategist’ at Public Relations (PR) company Webef Shandwick, in her recent book Corporate Reputation: 12 Steps to Safeguarding and Recovering Reputation. Gaines-Ross’s strategy is based on her analysis of how various organisations responded to crises, such as desktop-printer firm Xerox, whose business plummeted during the 1990s, and the USA’s National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) after the Columbia shuttle disaster in 2003. The first step she suggests is to ‘take the heat – leader first’. In many cases, chief executives who publicly accept responsibility for corporate failings can begin to reverse the freefall of their company’s reputations, but not always. If the leader is held at least partly responsible for the fall from grace, it can be almost impossible to convince critics that a new direction can be charted with that same person at the helm. This is the dilemma facing the heads of the IPCC and CRU. Both have been blamed for their organisations’ problems, not least for the way in which they have dealt with critics, and both have been subjected to public calls for their removal. Yet both organisations appear to believe they can repair their reputations without a change of leadership. The second step outlined by Gaines-Ross is to ‘communicate tirelessly’. Yet many climate researchers have avoided the media and the public, at least until the official enquiries have concluded their reports. This reaction may be understandable, but it has backfired. Journalists following the story have often been unable to find spokespeople willing to defend climate science. In this case, ‘no comment’ is commonly interpreted as an admission of silent, collective guilt. Remaining visible is only a start, though; climate scientists also need to be careful what they say. They must realise that they face doubts not just about their published results, but also about their conduct and honesty. It simply won’t work for scientists to continue to appeal to the weight of the evidence, while refusing to discuss the integrity of their profession. The harm has been increased by a perceived reluctance to admit even the possibility of mistakes or wrongdoing. The third step put forward by Gaines-Ross is ‘don’t underestimate your critics and competitors’. This means not only recognising the skill with which the opponents of climate research have executed their campaigns through Internet blogs and other media, but also acknowledging the validity of some of their criticisms. It is clear, for instance, that climate scientists need better standards of transparency, to allow for scrutiny not just by their peers, but also by critics from outside the world of research. It is also important to engage with those critics. That doesn’t mean conceding to unfounded arguments which are based on prejudice rather than evidence, but there is an obligation to help the public understand the causes of climate change, as well as the options for avoiding and dealing with the consequences. To begin the process of rebuilding trust in their profession, climate scientists need to follow these three seeps. But that is just the start. Gaines-Ross estimates that it typically takes four years for a company to rescue and restore a broken reputation. Winning back public confidence is a marathon, not a sprint, but you can’t win at all if you don’t step up to the starting line. Questions 27-32 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 3? Write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 27. If a majority of scientists at the CRU were cleared of misconduct, the public would be satisfied. 28. In the aftermath of the CRU scandal, most scientists avoided attention. 29. Journalists have defended the CRU and the IPCC against their critics. 30. Ralph Cicerone regarded the damage caused by the CRU as extending beyond the field of climate science. 31. Since 2010, confidence in climate science has risen slightly in the US. 32. Climate scientists should take professional advice on regaining public confidence. Questions 33-36 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 33. In accordance with Gaines-Ross’s views, the heads of the CRU and IPCC should have A resigned from their posts. B accepted responsibility and continued in their posts. C shifted attention onto more junior staff. D ignored the criticisms directed at them. 34. Which mistake have staff at the CRU and IPCC made? A They have blamed each other for problems. B They have publicly acknowledged failings. C They have avoided interviews with the press. D They have made conflicting public statements. 35. People who challenge the evidence of climate change have generally A presented their case poorly. B missed opportunities for publicity. C made some criticisms which are justified. D been dishonest in their statements. 36. What does the reference to ‘a marathon’ indicate in the final paragraph? A The rate at which the climate is changing. B The competition between rival theories of climate change. C The ongoing need for new climate data. D The time it might take for scientists to win back confidence Questions 37-40 Complete the summary using the list of words/phrases, A-H, below. Controversy about climate science The revelation, in 2009, that scientists at the CRU had presented inaccurate information and concealed some of their (37)………………………….had a serious effect on their reputation. In order to address the problem, the scientists should turn to experts in (38)………………………….. Leslie Gaines-Ross has published (39)……………………based on studies of crisis management in commercial and public-sector organisations. Amongst other things, Gaines-Ross suggests that climate scientists should confront their (40)……………………. A critics B corruption C statistics D guidelines E managers F public relations G sources H computer modelling Answers 1. 10/ten million 2. cats and foxes/ foxes and cats 3. monitored 4. (a wild-)fire 5. Extinct 6. 5/five months 7. 15/fifteen weeks 8. (strong) medicinal powers 9. skills and knowledge 10. False 11. True 12. NG 13. True 14. ii 15. v 16. i 17. vii 18. iv 19. viii 20. B, D 21. B, D 22. A, E 23. A, E 24. Astrakhan 25. Houses 26. Fire 27. No 28. Yes 29. No 30. Yes 31. NG 32. Yes 33. A 34. C 35. C 36. D 37. C 38. F 39. D 40. A

The Great Australian Fence A war has been going on for almost a hundred years between the sheep farmers of Australia and the dingo, Australia’s wild dog. To protect their livelihood, the farmers built a wire fence, 3,307 miles of continuous wire mesh, reaching from the coast of South Australia all the way to the cotton fields of eastern Queensland, just short of the Pacific Ocean. The Fence is Australia’s version of the Great Wall of China, but even longer, erected to keep out hostile invaders, in this case hordes of yellow dogs. The empire it preserves is that of the woolgrowers, sovereigns of the world’s second largest sheep flock, after China’s – some 123 million head – and keepers of a wool export business worth four billion dollars. Never mind that more and more people – conservationists, politicians, taxpayers and animal lovers – say that such a barrier would never be allowed today on ecological grounds. With sections of it almost a hundred years old, the dog fence has become, as conservationist Lindsay Fairweather ruefully admits, ‘an icon of Australian frontier ingenuity’. To appreciate this unusual outback monument and to meet the people whose livelihoods depend on it, I spent part of an Australian autumn travelling the wire. It’s known by different names in different states: the Dog Fence in South Australia, the Border Fence in New South Wales and the Barrier Fence in Queensland. I would call it simply the Fence. For most of its prodigious length, this epic fence winds like a river across a landscape that, unless a big rain has fallen, scarcely has rivers. The eccentric route, prescribed mostly by property lines, provides a sampler of outback topography: the Fence goes over sand dunes, past salt lakes, up and down rock-strewn hills, through dense scrub and across barren plains. The Fence stays away from towns. Where it passes near a town, it has actually become a tourist attraction visited on bus tours. It marks the traditional dividing line between cattle and sheep. Inside, where the dingoes are legally classified as vermin, they are shot, poisoned and trapped. Sheep and dingoes do not mix and the Fence sends that message mile after mile. What is this creature that by itself threatens an entire industry, inflicting several millions of dollars of damage a year despite the presence of the world’s most obsessive fence? Cousin to the coyote and the jackal, descended from the Asian wolf, Cam’s lupus dingo is an introduced species of wild dog. Skeletal remains indicate that the dingo was introduced to Australia more than 3,500 years ago probably with Asian seafarers who landed on the north coast. The adaptable dingo spread rapidly and in a short time became the top predator, killing off all its marsupial competitors. The dingo looks like a small wolf with a long nose, short pointed ears and a bushy tail. Dingoes rarely bark; they yelp and howl. Standing about 22 inches at the shoulder – slightly taller than a coyote – the dingo is Australia’s largest land carnivore. The woolgrowers’ war against dingoes, which is similar to the sheep ranchers’ rage against coyotes in the US, started not long after the first European settlers disembarked in 1788, bringing with them a cargo of sheep. Dingoes officially became outlaws in 1830 when governments placed a bounty on their heads. Today bounties for problem dogs killing sheep inside the Fence can reach $500. As pioneers penetrated the interior with their flocks of sheep, fences replaced shepherds until, by the end of the 19th century, thousands of miles of barrier fencing crisscrossed the vast grazing lands. The dingo started out as a quiet observer,’ writes Roland Breckwoldt, in A Very Elegant Animal: The Dingo, ‘but soon came to represent everything that was dark and dangerous on the continent.’ It is estimated that since sheep arrived in Australia, dingo numbers have increased a hundredfold. Though dingoes have been eradicated from parts of Australia, an educated guess puts the population at more than a million. Eventually government officials and graziers agreed that one well-maintained fence, placed on the outer rim of sheep country and paid for by taxes levied on woolgrowers, should supplant the maze of private netting. By 1960, three states joined their barriers to form a single dog fence. The intense private battles between woolgrowers and dingoes have usually served to define the Fence only in economic terms. It marks the difference between profit and loss. Yet the Fence casts a much broader ecological shadow for it has become a kind of terrestrial dam, deflecting the flow of animals inside and out. The ecological side effects appear most vividly at Sturt National Park. In 1845, explorer Charles Sturt led an expedition through these parts on a futile search for an inland sea. For Sturt and other early explorers, it was a rare event to see a kangaroo. Now they are ubiquitous for without a native predator the kangaroo population has exploded inside the Fence. Kangaroos are now cursed more than dingoes. They have become the rivals of sheep, competing for water and grass. In response state governments cull* more than three million kangaroos a year to keep Australia’s national symbol from overrunning the pastoral lands. Park officials, who recognise that the fence is to blame, respond to the excess of kangaroos by saying The fence is there, and we have to live with it. Questions 1-4 Choose the appropriate letters A-D and write them in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet. 1. Why was the fence built? A to separate the sheep from the cattle B to stop the dingoes from being slaughtered by farmers C to act as a boundary between properties D to protect the Australian wool industry 2. On what point do the conservationists and politicians agree? A Wool exports are vital to the economy. B The fence poses a threat to the environment. C The fence acts as a useful frontier between states. D The number of dogs needs to be reduced. 3. Why did the author visit Australia? A to study Australian farming methods B to investigate how the fence was constructed C because he was interested in life around the fence D because he wanted to learn more about the wool industry 4. How does the author feel about the fence? A impressed B delighted C shocked D annoyed Questions 5-11 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? In boxes 5-11 on your answer sheet write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 5. The fence serves a different purpose in each state. 6. The fence is only partially successful. 7. The dingo is indigenous to Australia. 8. Dingoes have flourished as a result of the sheep industry. 9. Dingoes are known to attack humans. 10. Kangaroos have increased in number because of the fence. 11. The author does not agree with the culling of kangaroos. Questions 12-13 Choose the appropriate letters A-D and write them in boxes 12-13 on your answer sheet. 12. When did the authorities first acknowledge the dingo problem? A 1788 B 1830 C 1845 D 1960 13. How do the park officials feel about the fence? A philosophical B angry C pleased D proud IT’S ECO-LOGICAL If there were awards for tourism phrases that have been hijacked, diluted and misused then ‘ecotourism’ would earn top prize. The term first surfaced in the early 1980s reflecting a surge in environmental awareness and a realisation by tour operators that many travellers wanted to believe their presence abroad would not have a negative impact. It rapidly became the hottest marketing tag a holiday could carry. These days the ecotourism label is used to cover anything from a two-week tour living with remote Indonesian tribes, to a one-hour motorboat trip through an Australian gorge. In fact, any tour that involves cultural interaction, natural beauty spots, wildlife or a dash of soft adventure is likely to be included in the overflowing ecotourism folder. There is no doubt the original motives behind the movement were honourable attempts to provide a way for those who cared to make informed choices, but the lack of regulations and a standard industry definition left many travellers lost in an ecotourism jungle. It is easier to understand why the ecotourism market has become so overcrowded when we look at its wider role in the world economy. According to World Tourism Organisation figures, ecotourism is worth US$20 billion a year and makes up one-fifth of all international tourism. Add to this an annual growth rate of around five per cent and the pressure for many operators, both in developed and developing countries, to jump on the accelerating bandwagon is compelling. Without any widely recognised accreditation system, the consumer has been left to investigate the credentials of an operator themselves. This is a time-consuming process and many travellers usually take an operator’s claims at face value, only adding to the proliferation of fake ecotours. However, there are several simple questions that will provide qualifying evidence of a company’s commitment to minimise its impact on the environment and maximise the benefits to the tourism area’s local community. For example, does the company use recycled or sustainable, locally harvested materials to build its tourist properties? Do they pay fair wages to all employees? Do they offer training to employees? It is common for city entrepreneurs to own tour companies in country areas, which can mean the money you pay ends up in the city rather than in the community being visited. By taking a little extra time to investigate the ecotourism options, it is not only possible to guide your custom to worthy operators but you will often find that the experience they offer is far more rewarding. The ecotourism business is still very much in need of a shake-up and a standardised approach. There are a few organisations that have sprung up in the last ten years or so that endeavour to educate travellers and operators about the benefits of responsible ecotourism. Founded in 1990, the Ecotourism Society (TES) is a non-profit organisation of travel industry, conservation and ecological professionals, which aims to make ecotourism a genuine tool for conservation and sustainable development. Helping to create inherent economic value in wilderness environments and threatened cultures has undoubtedly been one of the ecotourism movement’s most notable achievements. TES organises an annual initiative to further aid development of the ecotourism industry. This year it is launching ‘Your Travel Choice Makes a Difference’, an educational campaign aimed at helping consumers understand the potential positive and negative impacts of their travel decisions. TES also offers guidance on the choice of ecotour and has established a register of approved ecotourism operators around the world. A leading ecotourism operator in the United Kingdom is Tribes, which won the 1999 Tourism Concern and Independent Traveller’s World ‘Award for Most Responsible Tour Operator’. Amanda Marks, owner and director of Tribes, believes that the ecotourism industry still has some way to go to get its house in order. Until now, no ecotourism accreditation scheme has really worked, principally because there has been no systematic way of checking that accredited companies actually comply with the code of practice. Amanda believes that the most promising system is the recently re-launched Green Globe 21 scheme. The Green Globe 21 award is based on the sustainable development standards contained in Agenda 21 from the 1992 Earth Summit and was originally coordinated by the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC). The scheme is now an independent concern, though the WTTC still supports it. Until recently, tour companies became affiliates and could use the Green Globe logo merely on payment of an annual fee, hardly a suitable qualifying standard. However, in November 1999 Green Globe 21 introduced an annual, independent check on operators wishing to use the logo. Miriam Cain, from the Green Globe 21 marketing development, explains that current and new affiliates will now have one year to ensure that their operations comply with Agenda 21 standards. If they fail the first inspection, they can only reapply once. The inspection process is not a cheap option, especially for large companies, but the benefits of having Green Globe status and the potential operational cost savings that complying with the standards can bring should be significant. ‘We have joint ventures with organisations around the world, including Australia and the Caribbean, that will allow us to effectively check all affiliate operators,’ says Miriam. The scheme also allows destination communities to become Green Globe 21 approved. For a relatively new industry it is not surprising that ecotourism has undergone teething pains. However, there are signs that things are changing for the better. With a committed and unified approach by the travel industry, local communities, travellers and environmental experts could make ecotourism a tag to be proud of and trusted. Questions 14-19 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 2? In boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 14. The term ‘ecotourism’ has become an advertising gimmick. 15. The intentions of those who coined the term ‘ecotourism’ were sincere. 16. Ecotourism is growing at a faster rate than any other type of travel. 17. It is surprising that so many tour organisations decided to become involved in ecotourism. 18. Tourists have learnt to make investigations about tour operators before using them. 19. Tourists have had bad experiences on ecotour holidays. Questions 20-22 According to the information given in the reading passage, which THREE of the following are true of the Ecotourism Society (TES)? A it has monitored the growth in ecotourism B it involves a range of specialists in the field C it has received public recognition for the role it performs D it sets up regular ecotour promotions E it offers information on ecotours at an international level F it consults with people working in tourist destinations Questions 23-24 According to the information given in the reading passage, which TWO of the following are true of the Green Globe 21 award? A the scheme is self regulating B Amanda Marks was recruited to develop the award C prior to 1999 companies were not required to pay for membership D both tour operators and tour sites can apply for affiliation E it intends to reduce the number of ecotour operators Questions 25-27 Using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS, answer the following questions. 25. Which body provides information on global tourist numbers? 26. Who often gains financially from tourism in rural environments? 27. Which meeting provided the principles behind the Green Globe 21 regulations? Striking the right note The uncanny, if sometimes distracting, ability to name a solitary note out of the blue, without any other notes for reference, is a prized musical talent – and a scientific mystery. Musicians with perfect pitch – or, as many researchers prefer to call it, absolute pitch – can often play pieces by ear, and many can transcribe music brilliantly. That’s because they perceive the position of a note in the musical stave – its pitch – as clearly as the fact that they heard it. Hearing and naming the pitch go hand in hand. By contrast, most musicians follow not the notes, but the relationship between them. They may easily recognise two notes as being a certain number of tones apart, but could name the higher note as an E only if they are told the lower one is a C, for example. This is relative pitch. Useful, but much less mysterious. For centuries, absolute pitch has been thought of as the preserve of the musical elite. Some estimates suggest that maybe fewer than 1 in 2,000 people possess it. But a growing number of studies, from speech experiments to brain scans, are now suggesting that a knack for absolute pitch may be far more common, and more varied, than previously thought. ‘Absolute pitch is not an all or nothing feature,’ says Marvin, a music theorist at the University of Rochester in New York state. Some researchers even claim that we could all develop the skill, regardless of our musical talent. And their work may finally settle a decades-old debate about whether absolute pitch depends on melodious genes – or early music lessons. Music psychologist Diana Deutsch at the University of California in San Diego is the leading voice. Last month at the Acoustical Society of America meeting in Columbus, Ohio, Deutsch reported a study that suggests we all have the potential to acquire absolute pitch – and that speakers of tone languages use it every day. A third of the world’s population – chiefly people in Asia and Africa – speak tone languages, in which a word’s meaning can vary depending on the pitch a speaker uses. Deutsch and her colleagues asked seven native Vietnamese speakers and 15 native Mandarin speakers to read out lists of words on different days. The chosen words spanned a range of pitches, to force the speakers to raise and lower their voices considerably. By recording these recited lists and taking the average pitch for each whole word, the researchers compared the pitches used by each person to say each word on different days. Both groups showed strikingly consistent pitch for any given word – often less than a quarter-tone difference between days. ‘The similarity,’ Deutsch says, ‘is mind-boggling.’ It’s also, she says, a real example of absolute pitch. As babies, the speakers learnt to associate certain pitches with meaningful words – just as a musician labels one tone A and another B – and they demonstrate this precise use of pitch regardless of whether or not they have had any musical training, she adds. Deutsch isn’t the only researcher turning up everyday evidence of absolute pitch. At least three other experiments have found that people can launch into familiar songs at or very near the correct pitches. Some researchers have nicknamed this ability ‘absolute memory’, and they say it pops up on other senses, too. Given studies like these, the real mystery is why we don’t all have absolute pitch, says cognitive psychologist Daniel Levitin of McGill University in Montreal. Over the past decade, researchers have confirmed that absolute pitch often runs in families. Nelson Freimer of the University of California in San Francisco, for example, is just completing a study that he says strongly suggests the right genes help create this brand of musical genius. Freimer gave tone tests to people with absolute pitch and to their relatives. He also tested several hundred other people who had taken early music lessons. He found that relatives of people with absolute pitch were far more likely to develop the skill than people who simply had the music lessons. There is clearly a familial aggregation of absolute pitch,’ Freimer says. Freimer says some children are probably genetically predisposed toward absolute pitch – and this innate inclination blossoms during childhood music lessons. Indeed, many researchers now point to this harmony of nature and nurture to explain why musicians with absolute pitch show different levels of the talent. Indeed, researchers are finding more and more evidence suggesting music lessons are critical to the development of absolute pitch. In a survey of 2,700 students in American music conservatories and college programmes, New York University geneticist Peter Gregersen and his colleagues found that a whopping 32 per cent of the Asian students reported having absolute pitch, compared with just 7 per cent of non-Asian students. While that might suggest a genetic tendency towards absolute pitch in the Asian population, Gregersen says that the type and timing of music lessons probably explains much of the difference. For one thing, those with absolute pitch started lessons, on average, when they were five years old, while those without absolute pitch started around the age of eight. Moreover, adds Gregersen, the type of music lessons favoured in Asia, and by many of the Asian families in his study, such as the Suzuki method, often focus on playing by ear and learning the names of musical notes, while those more commonly used in the US tend to emphasise learning scales in a relative pitch way. In Japanese pre-school music programmes, he says, children often have to listen to notes played on a piano and hold up a coloured flag to signal the pitch. ‘There’s a distinct cultural difference,’ he says. Deutsch predicts that further studies will reveal absolute pitch – in its imperfect, latent form – inside all of us. The Western emphasis on relative pitch simply obscures it, she contends. ‘It’s very likely that scientists will end up concluding that we’re all born with the potential to acquire very fine-grained absolute pitch. It’s really just a matter of life getting in the way.’ Questions 28-35 Complete the notes below using words from the box. Write your answers in boxes 28-35 on your answer sheet. NOTES Research is being conducted into the mysterious musical (28)……………….some people possess known as perfect pitch. Musicians with this talent are able to name and sing a (29)……………….without reference to another and it is this that separates them from the majority who have only (30)………………….pitch. The research aims to find out whether this skill is the product of genetic inheritance or early exposure to (31)…………………or, as some researchers believe, a combination of both. One research team sought a link between perfect pitch and (32)…………………..languages in order to explain the high number of Asian speakers with perfect pitch. Speakers of Vietnamese and Mandarin were asked to recite (33)……………………on different occasions and the results were then compared in terms of (34)………………………A separate study found that the approach to teaching music in many Asian (35)……………………. emphasised playing by ear whereas the US method was based on the relative pitch approach. List of words ability music lessons pitch words tone relative cultures note Questions 36-40 Reading Passage 3 contains a number of opinions provided by five different scientists. Match each opinion (Questions 36-40) with one of the scientists (A-E). A Levitin B Deutsch C Gregersen D Marvin E Freimer You may use any of the people A-E more than once. 36. Absolute pitch is not a clear-cut issue. 37. Anyone can learn how to acquire perfect pitch. 38. It’s actually surprising that not everyone has absolute pitch. 39. The perfect pitch ability is genetic. 40. The important thing is the age at which music lessons are started. Answers 1. D 2. B 3. C 4. A 5. No 6. Yes 7. No 8. Yes 9. NG 10. Yes 11. NG 12. B 13. A 14. Yes 15. Yes 16. NG 17. No 18. No 19. NG 20. B, D, E 21. B, D, E 22. B, D, E 23. A, D 24. A, D 25. World Tourism Organization/Organisation 26. city entrepreneurs 27. 1992 Earth Summit 28. Ability 29. Note 30. Relative 31. Music lessons 32. Tone 33. Words 34. Pitch 35. Cultures 36. D 37. B 38. A 39. E 40. C

The secret of staying young Pheidole dentata, a native ant of the south-eastern U.S., isn’t immortal. But scientists have found that it doesn’t seem to show any signs of aging. Old worker ants can do everything just as well as the youngsters, and their brains appear just as sharp. ‘We get a picture that these ants really don’t decline,’ says Ysabel Giraldo, who studied the ants for her doctoral thesis at Boston University. Such age-defying feats are rare in the animal kingdom. Naked mole rats can live for almost 30 years and stay fit for nearly their entire lives. They can still reproduce even when old, and they never get cancer. But the vast majority of animals deteriorate with age just like people do. Like the naked mole rat, ants are social creatures that usually live in highly organised colonies. ‘It’s this social complexity that makes P. dentata useful for studying aging in people,’ says Giraldo, now at the California Institute of Technology. Humans are also highly social, a trait that has been connected to healthier aging. By contrast, most animal studies of aging use mice, worms or fruit flies, which all lead much more isolated lives. In the lab, P. dentata worker ants typically live for around 140 days. Giraldo focused on ants at four age ranges: 20 to 22 days, 45 to 47 days, 95 to 97 days and 120 to 122 days. Unlike all previous studies, which only estimated how old the ants were, her work tracked the ants from the time the pupae became adults, so she knew their exact ages. Then she put them through a range of tests. Giraldo watched how well the ants took care of the young of the colony, recording how often each ant attended to, carried and fed them. She compared how well 20-day-old and 95-day-old ants followed the telltale scent that the insects usually leave to mark a trail to food. She tested how ants responded to light and also measured how active they were by counting how often ants in a small dish walked across a line. And she experimented with how ants react to live prey: a tethered fruit fly. Giraldo expected the older ants to perform poorly in all these tasks. But the elderly insects were all good caretakers and trail-followers—the 95-day-old ants could track the scent even longer than their younger counterparts. They all responded to light well, and the older ants were more active. And when it came to reacting to prey, the older ants attacked the poor fruit fly just as aggressively as the young ones did, flaring their mandibles or pulling at the fly’s legs. Then Giraldo compared the brains of 20-day-old and 95-day-old ants, identifying any cells that were close to death. She saw no major differences with age, nor was there any difference in the location of the dying cells, showing that age didn’t seem to affect specific brain functions. Ants and other insects have structures in their brains called mushroom bodies, which are important for processing information, learning and memory. She also wanted to see if aging affects the density of synaptic complexes within these structures—regions where neurons come together. Again, the answer was no. What was more, the old ants didn’t experience any drop in the levels of either serotonin or dopamine—brain chemicals whose decline often coincides with aging. In humans, for example, a decrease in serotonin has been linked to Alzheimer’s disease. ‘This is the first time anyone has looked at both behavioral and neural changes in these ants so thoroughly,’ says Giraldo, who recently published the findings in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B. Scientists have looked at some similar aspects in bees, but the results of recent bee studies were mixed—some studies showed age-related declines, which biologists call senescence, and others didn’t. ‘For now, the study raises more questions than it answers,’ Giraldo says, ‘including how P. dentata stays in such good shape.’ Also, if the ants don’t deteriorate with age, why do they die at all? Out in the wild, the ants probably don’t live for a full 140 days thanks to predators, disease and just being in an environment that’s much harsher than the comforts of the lab. ‘The lucky ants that do live into old age may suffer a steep decline just before dying,’ Giraldo says, but she can’t say for sure because her study wasn’t designed to follow an ant’s final moments. ‘It will be important to extend these findings to other species of social insects,’ says Gene E. Robinson, an entomologist at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. This ant might be unique, or it might represent a broader pattern among other social bugs with possible clues to the science of aging in larger animals. Either way, it seems that for these ants, age really doesn’t matter. Questions 1 – 8 Complete the notes below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. Write your answer in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet. Ysabel Giraldo’s research Focused on a total of (1)………………different age groups of ants, analysing Behaviour: • how well ants looked after their (2)……………… • their ability to locate (3)……………..using a scent trail • the effect that (4)………….had on them • how (5)………………they attacked prey Brains: • comparison between age and the (6)……………….of dying cells in the brains of ants • condition of synaptic complexes (areas in which (7)……………….meet) in the brain’s ‘mushroom bodies’ • level of two (8)…………….in the brain associated with ageing Questions 9 – 13 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? In boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 9 Pheidole dentata ants are the only known animals which remain active for almost their whole lives. 10 Ysabel Giraldo was the first person to study Pheidole dentata ants using precise data about the insects’ ages. 11 The ants in Giraldo’s experiments behaved as she had predicted that they would. 12 The recent studies of bees used different methods of measuring age- related decline. 13 Pheidole dentata ants kept in laboratory conditions tend to live longer lives. Why zoos are good A In my view, it is perfectly possible for many species of animals living in zoos or wildlife parks to have a quality of life as high as, or higher than, in the wild. Animals in good zoos get a varied and high-quality diet with all the supplements required, and any illnesses they might have will be treated. Their movement might be somewhat restricted, but they have a safe environment in which to live, and they are spared bullying and social ostracism by others of their kind. They do not suffer from the threat or stress of predators, or the irritation and pain of parasites or injuries. The average captive animal will have a greater life expectancy compared with its wild counterpart, and will not die of drought, of starvation or in the jaws of a predator. A lot of very nasty things happen to truly ‘wild’ animals that simply don’t happen in good zoos, and to view a life that is ‘free’ as one that is automatically ‘good’ is, I think, an error. Furthermore, zoos serve several key purposes. B Firstly, zoos aid conservation. Colossal numbers of species are becoming extinct across the world, and many more are increasingly threatened and therefore risk extinction. Moreover, some of these collapses have been sudden, dramatic and unexpected, or were simply discovered very late in the day. A species protected in captivity can be bred up to provide a reservoir population against a population crash or extinction in the wild. A good number of species only exist in captivity, with many of these living in zoos. Still more only exist in the wild because they have been reintroduced from zoos, or have wild populations that have been boosted by captive bred animals. Without these efforts there would be fewer species alive today. Although reintroduction successes are few and far between, the numbers are increasing, and the very fact that species have been saved or reintroduced as a result of captive breeding proves the value of such initiatives. C Zoos also provide education. Many children and adults, especially those in cities, will never see a wild animal beyond a fox or pigeon. While it is true that television documentaries are becoming ever more detailed and impressive, and many natural history specimens are on display in museums, there really is nothing to compare with seeing a living creature in the flesh, hearing it, smelling it, watching what it does and having the time to absorb details. That alone will bring a greater understanding and perspective to many, and hopefully give them a greater appreciation for wildlife, conservation efforts and how they can contribute. D In addition to this, there is also the education that can take place in zoos through signs, talks and presentations which directly communicate information to visitors about the animals they are seeing and their place in the world. This was an area where zoos used to be lacking, but they are now increasingly sophisticated in their communication and outreach work. Many zoos also work directly to educate conservation workers in other countries, or send their animal keepers abroad to contribute their knowledge and skills to those working in zoos and reserves, thereby helping to improve conditions and reintroductions all over the world. E Zoos also play a key role in research. If we are to save wild species and restore and repair ecosystems we need to know about how key species live, act and react. Being able to undertake research on animals in zoos where there is less risk and fewer variables means real changes can be effected on wild populations. Finding out about, for example, the oestrus cycle of an animal or its breeding rate helps us manage wild populations. Procedures such as capturing and moving at-risk or dangerous individuals are bolstered by knowledge gained in zoos about doses for anaesthetics, and by experience in handling and transporting animals. This can make a real difference to conservation efforts and to the reduction of human-animal conflicts, and can provide a knowledge base for helping with the increasing threats of habitat destruction and other problems. F In conclusion, considering the many ongoing global threats to the environment, it is hard for me to see zoos as anything other than essential to the long-term survival of numerous species. They are vital not just in terms of protecting animals, but as a means of learning about them to aid those still in the wild, as well as educating and informing the general population about these animals and their world so that they can assist or at least accept the need to be more environmentally conscious. Without them, the world would be, and would increasingly become, a much poorer place. Questions 14 – 17 Reading Passage 2 has six paragraphs, A-F. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 14-17 on your answer sheet. 14 a reference to how quickly animal species can die out 15 reasons why it is preferable to study animals in captivity rather than in the wild 16 mention of two ways of learning about animals other than visiting them in zoos 17 reasons why animals in zoos may be healthier than those in the wild Questions 18 – 22 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2? In boxes 18-22 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 18 An animal is likely to live longer in a zoo than in the wild. 19 There are some species in zoos which can no longer be found in the wild. 20 Improvements in the quality of TV wildlife documentaries have resulted in increased numbers of zoo visitors. 21 Zoos have always excelled at transmitting information about animals to the public. 22 Studying animals in zoos is less stressful for the animals than studying them in the wild. Questions 23 and 24 Choose TWO letters, A-E. Write the correct letters in boxes 23 and 24 on your answer sheet. Which TWO of the following are stated about zoo staff in the text? A Some take part in television documentaries about animals. B Some travel to overseas locations to join teams in zoos. C Some get experience with species in the wild before taking up zoo jobs. D Some teach people who are involved with conservation projects. E Some specialise in caring for species which are under threat. Questions 25 and 26 Choose TWO letters, A-E. Write the correct letters in boxes 25 and 26 on your answer sheet. Which TWO of these beliefs about zoos does the writer mention in the text? A They can help children overcome their fears of wild animals. B They can increase public awareness of environmental issues. C They can provide employment for a range of professional people. D They can generate income to support wildlife conservation projects. E They can raise animals which can later be released into the wild. READING PASSAGE 3 Chelsea Rochman, an ecologist at the University of California, Davis, has been trying to answer a dismal question: Is everything terrible, or are things just very, very bad? Rochman is a member of the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis’s marine-debris working group, a collection of scientists who study, among other things, the growing problem of marine debris, also known as ocean trash. Plenty of studies have sounded alarm bells about the state of marine debris; in a recent paper published in the journal Ecology, Rochman and her colleagues set out to determine how many of those perceived risks are real. Often, Rochman says, scientists will end a paper by speculating about the broader impacts of what they’ve found. For example, a study could show that certain seabirds eat plastic bags, and go on to warn that whole bird populations are at risk of dying out. ‘But the truth was that nobody had yet tested those perceived threats,’ Rochman says. ‘There wasn’t a lot of information.’ Rochman and her colleagues examined more than a hundred papers on the impacts of marine debris that were published through 2013. Within each paper, they asked what threats scientists had studied – 366 perceived threats in all – and what they’d actually found. In 83 percent of cases, the perceived dangers of ocean trash were proven true. In the remaining cases, the working group found the studies had weaknesses in design and content which affected the validity of their conclusions – they lacked a control group, for example, or used faulty statistics. Strikingly, Rochman says, only one well-designed study failed to find the effect it was looking for, an investigation of mussels ingesting microscopic plastic bits. The plastic moved from the mussels’ stomachs to their bloodstreams, scientists found, and stayed there for weeks – but didn’t seem to stress out the shellfish. While mussels may be fine eating trash, though, the analysis also gave a clearer picture of the many ways that ocean debris is bothersome. Within the studies they looked at, most of the proven threats came from plastic debris, rather than other materials like metal or wood. Most of the dangers also involved large pieces of debris – animals getting entangled in trash, for example, or eating it and severely injuring themselves. But a lot of ocean debris is ‘microplastic’, or pieces smaller than five millimeters. These may be ingredients used in cosmetics and toiletries, fibers shed by synthetic clothing in the wash, or eroded remnants of larger debris. Compared to the number of studies investigating large-scale debris, Rochman’s group found little research on the effects of these tiny bits. ‘There are a lot of open questions still for microplastic,’ Rochman says, though she notes that more papers on the subject have been published since 2013, the cutoff point for the group’s analysis. There are also, she adds, a lot of open questions about the ways that ocean debris can lead to sea-creature death. Many studies have looked at how plastic affects an individual animal, or that animal’s tissues or cells, rather than whole populations. And in the lab, scientists often use higher concentrations of plastic than what’s really in the ocean. None of that tells us how many birds or fish or sea turtles could die from plastic pollution – or how deaths in one species could affect that animal’s predators, or the rest of the ecosystem. ‘We need to be asking more ecologically relevant questions,’ Rochman says. Usually, scientists don’t know exactly how disasters such as a tanker accidentally spilling its whole cargo of oil and polluting huge areas of the ocean will affect the environment until after they’ve happened. ‘We don’t ask the right questions early enough,’ she says. But if ecologists can understand how the slow-moving effect of ocean trash is damaging ecosystems, they might be able to prevent things from getting worse. Asking the right questions can help policy makers, and the public, figure out where to focus their attention. The problems that look or sound most dramatic may not be the best places to start. For example, the name of the ‘Great Pacific Garbage Patch’ – a collection of marine debris in the northern Pacific Ocean – might conjure up a vast, floating trash island. In reality though, much of the debris is tiny or below the surface; a person could sail through the area without seeing any trash at all. A Dutch group called ‘The Ocean Cleanup’ is currently working on plans to put mechanical devices in the Pacific Garbage Patch and similar areas to suck up plastic. But a recent paper used simulations to show that strategically positioning the cleanup devices closer to shore would more effectively reduce pollution over the long term. ‘I think clearing up some of these misperceptions is really important,’ Rochman says. Among scientists as well as in the media, she says, ‘A lot of the images about strandings and entanglement and all of that cause the perception that plastic debris is killing everything in the ocean.’ Interrogating the existing scientific literature can help ecologists figure out which problems really need addressing, and which ones they’d be better off- like the mussels – absorbing and ignoring. Questions 27 – 33 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 3? In boxes 27-33 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 27 Rochman and her colleagues were the first people to research the problem of marine debris. 28 The creatures most in danger from ocean trash are certain seabirds. 29 The studies Rochman has reviewed have already proved that populations of some birds will soon become extinct. 30 Rochman analysed papers on the different kinds of danger caused by ocean trash. 31 Most of the research analysed by Rochman and her colleagues was badly designed. 32 One study examined by Rochman was expecting to find that mussels were harmed by eating plastic. 33 Some mussels choose to eat plastic in preference to their natural diet. Questions 34 – 39 Complete the notes below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 34-39 on your answer sheet. Findings related to marine debris Studies of marine debris found the biggest threats were • plastic (not metal or wood) • bits of debris that were (34)……………..(harmful to animals) There was little research into (35)……………….e.g. from synthetic fibres. Drawbacks of the studies examined • most of them focused on individual animals, not entire 36 • the (37)…………………….of plastic used in the lab did not always reflect those in the ocean • there was insufficient information on – numbers of animals which could be affected – the impact of a reduction in numbers on the (38)……………….of that species – the impact on the ecosystem Rochman says more information is needed on the possible impact of future (39)………….(e.g. involving oil). Question 40 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 40 What would be the best title for this passage? A Assessing the threat of marine debris B Marine debris: who is to blame? C A new solution to the problem of marine debris D Marine debris: the need for international action Answers 1. 4 2. young 3. food 4. light 5. aggressively 6. location 7. neurons 8. chemicals 9. False 10. True 11. False 12. Not given 13. True 14. B 15. E 16. C 17. A 18. True 19. True 20. Not given 21. False 22. Not given 23. B 24. D 25. B 26. E 27. False 28. Not given 29. False 30. True 31. False 32. True 33. Not given 34. large 35. microplastic 36. populations 37. concentrations 38. predators 39. disasters 40. A

Experience versus speed Jake, aged 16, has a terrific relationship with his grandmother Rita, who is 70. They live close by, and they even take a Spanish class together twice a week at a local college. After class, they sometimes stop at a cafe for a snack. On one occasion, Rita tells Jake, ‘I think it’s great how fast you pick up new grammar. It takes me a lot longer.’ Jake replies, ‘Yeah, but you don’t seem to make as many silly mistakes on the quizzes as I do. How do you do that?’ In that moment, Rita and Jake stumbled across an interesting set of differences between older and younger minds. Popular psychology says that as people age their brains ‘slow down’. The implication, of course, is that elderly men and women are not as mentally agile as middle-aged adults or even teenagers. However, although certain brain functions such as perception and reaction time do indeed take longer, that slowing down does not necessarily undermine mental sharpness. Indeed, evidence shows that older people are just as mentally fit as younger people because their brains compensate for some kinds of declines in creative ways that young minds do not exploit. Just as people’s bodies age at different rates, so do their minds. As adults advance in age, the perception of sights, sounds and smells takes a bit longer, and laying down new information into memory becomes more difficult. The ability to retrieve memories also quickly slides and it is sometimes harder to concentrate and maintain attention. On the other hand, the ageing brain can create significant benefits by tapping into its extensive hoard of accumulated knowledge and experience. The biggest trick that older brains employ is to use both hemispheres simultaneously to handle tasks for which younger brains rely predominantly on one side. Electronic images taken by cognitive scientists at the University of Michigan, for example, have demonstrated that even when doing basic recognition or memorization exercises, seniors exploit the left and right side of the brain more extensively than men and women who are decades younger. Drawing on both sides of the brain gives them a tactical edge, even if the speed of each hemisphere’s process is slower. In another experiment, Michael Falkenstein of the University of Dortmund in Germany found that when elders were presented with new computer exercises they paused longer before reacting and took longer to complete the tasks, yet they made 50% fewer errors, probably because of their more deliberate pace. One analogy for these results might be the question of who can type a paragraph ‘better’: a 16-year-old who glides along at 60 words per minute but has to double back to correct a number of mistakes or a 70-year-old who strikes keys at only 40 words per minute but spends less time fixing errors? In the end, if ‘better’ is defined as completing a clean paragraph. both people may end up taking the same amount of time. Computerized tests support the notion that accuracy can offset speed. In one so-called distraction exercise, subjects were told to look at a screen, wait for an arrow that pointed in a certain direction to appear, and then use a mouse to click on the arrow as soon as it appeared on the screen. Just before the correct symbol appeared, however, the computer displayed numerous other arrows aimed in various other directions. Although younger subjects cut through the confusion faster when the correct arrow suddenly popped up, they more frequently clicked on incorrect arrows in their haste. Older test takers are equally capable of other tasks that do not depend on speed, such as language comprehension and processing. In these cases, however. the elders utilize the brain’s available resources in a different way. Neurologists at Northwest University came to this conclusion after analyzing 50 people ranging from age 23 to 78. The subjects had to lie down in a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machine and concentrate on two different lists of printed words posted side by side in front of them. By looking at the lists, they were to find pairs of words that were similar in either meaning or spelling. The eldest participants did just as well on the tests as the youngest did, and yet the MRI scans indicated that in the elders’ brains, the areas which are responsible for language recognition and interpretation were much less active. The researchers did find that the older people had more activity in brain regions responsible for attentiveness. Darren Gleitman, who headed the study, concluded that older brains solved the problems just as effectively but by different means. Questions 1-3 Choose the correct answer A, B, C or D and write them on your answer sheet from 1-3 1 The conversation between Jake and Rita is used to give an example of A. the way we learn languages. B. the changes that occur in our brains over time. C. the fact that it is easier to learn a language at a young age. D. the importance of young and old people doing things together. 2 In paragraph six, what point is the analogy used to illustrate? A. Working faster is better than working slower. B. Accuracy is less important than speed. C. Accuracy can improve over time. D. Working faster does not always save time. 3 In the computerized distraction exercises, the subjects had to A. react to a particular symbol on the screen. B. type a text as quickly as possible. C. move an arrow in different directions around the screen. D. click on every arrow that appeared on the screen. Questions 4-7 Complete each sentence with the correct ending A-F. Write the correct letter A-F in boxes 4-7 on your answer sheet 4 According to popular psychology 5 Researchers at the University of Michigan showed that 6 Michael Falkenstein discovered that 7 Scientists at Northwest University concluded that A. the older we get the harder it is to concentrate for any length of time. B. seniors take longer to complete tasks but with greater accuracy. C. old people use both parts of their brain more than young people. D. older people use their brains differently but achieve the same result. E. the speed of our brain decreases with age. F. older people do not cope well with new technology. Questions 8-12 Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN ONE WORD from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in spaces 8-12 of your answer sheet. People’s bodies and 8 __________ grow older at varying stages. As we age our senses take longer to process information and our aptitude for recalling 9 __________ also decreases. However, older people’s brains do have several advantages. Firstly, they can call upon both the 10 __________ and 11 __________ which is already stored in their brain. Secondly, although the 12__________ of each side of their brain is reduced, they are able to use both sides at once. Robotic approach to crop breeding A The Australian sunflower industry is the major source of polyunsaturated fatty acids found in margarines and spreads. Recognised as the type of fatty acid most able to protect against heart disease, it is in everybody’s best interest that Australia has a competitive and healthy sunflower industry, but in Australia, there is a constant struggle with the harsh climate. However, thanks to one special robot, farmers may be able to win the battle against drought. B Dr Chris Lambrides, a research fellow at the University of Queensland, is nearing the end of a project that aims to develop more drought tolerant sunflowers by selecting flowers that use water more efficiently. He’s done this with the help of a robot developed by the Australian National University’s Research School of Biological Sciences. C Plants undergo photosynthesis to produce energy in the form of sugar. This involves allowing carbon dioxide to enter the leaves through pores called stomata. Transpiration is the mechanism by which plants lose water through their leaves. This system is thought to facilitate the passage of minerals through the plant and is vital for healthy plants. D However, in conditions of drought, the plants that can use the available water efficiently and lose less to the environment will be more likely to thrive and, in a commercial sense become more profitable. These plants are classified as having a high transpiration efficiency. When plants transpire, the leaves become cooler due to evaporation. Therefore, by measuring the temperature of the leaves, scientists can determine how much water is being lost through transpiration. E When the project first began, the researchers used hand-held infrared thermometers to measure the temperature difference between leaves of different varieties of sunflowers in an experimental plot. Wind can affect leaf temperature, and the research team discovered that its initial approach did not cater for changes in wind speed, which could not be controlled as an experimental variable. The team, therefore, needed a technique to measure temperature continuously that would allow it to examine the effects of other variables such as humidity. They needed a robot. F They designed a robot with two infrared thermometers set at 1800 to each other. The robot runs on an oblong track around the experimental plot and the thermometers operate on each side of the track. In order to minimize any variables from the two thermometers, they are rotated 1800 at the beginning of each run and the results are averaged. The infrared thermometers can be rotated on an angle to examine different parts of the foliage. G The robot is also able to detect light intensity. It has a garage on the track, where it waits until the light intensity is high enough to give useful results. If the skies darken due to rain, heavy cloud cover or sunset, the robot makes its way back to the garage to wait. H The main difficulty faced by the research group was to find an agronomist who could grow the perfect crop of sunflowers. The sunflower canopy had to be complete, with no visible soil, 50 that the thermometers would only measure the temperature of the plants and not the surrounding environment. Eight varieties of sunflower were examined. The data collected by the robot has been used by the research team to determine which variety has the highest transpiration efficiency. I This is not the first time such methods have been used to determine drought-resistance in plants. The team and their robot have already made a major breakthrough in the Australian wheat industry with Drysdale Wheat, which signalled the arrival of a new technique for selecting drought-resistant species. Questions 13-16 Complete the sentences with words taken from the passage. Use NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet 13 In terms of our health, sunflowers are important in defending humans against …………………………………… 14 The research team wanted to find a sunflower that could cope well in conditions …………………………………… 15 The name of the process which is believed to help keep plants in good condition is …………………………………… 16 The research team had to rethink their initial approach when they realised they needed to measure the impact of external conditions such as…………………………………… Questions 17-24 The reading passage has nine paragraphs labelled A-I. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 5-12 on your answer sheet. 17 the precise growing conditions required to allow the experiment to work 18 a description of the how the robot operates 19 an explanation of two important processes used by plants 20 a reference to a previous study using a different crop 21 details of what the robot does when conditions are poor 22 the name of the group responsible for making the robot 23 the number of different types of sunflower tested 24 the purpose of taking the temperature of the plants How consumers decide Understanding consumers Consumers are creatures of habit: they buy the same products time and time again, and such is their familiarity with big brands and the colours and logos that represent them, that they can register a brand they like with barely any conscious thought process. The packaging of consumer products is, therefore, a crucial vehicle for delivering the brand and the product into our shopping baskets. Having said this, understanding how consumers make decisions, and the crucial role of packaging in this process has been a neglected area of research so far. This is surprising given that organisations invest huge amounts of money in developing packaging that they believe is effective – especially at the retail level. Our Centre for Decision Research at Leeds University’s Business School, in collaboration with Faraday Packaging, is now undertaking work in this area. It has already led to some important findings that challenge the ways in which organisations think about consumer choice. The research has focused on two fundamental types of thinking. On the one hand, there’s ‘heuristic processing’, which involves very shallow thought and is based on very simple rules: 1) buy what you recognize, 2) choose what you did last time, or 3) choose what a trusted source suggests. This requires comparatively little effort, and involves looking at – and thinking about – only a small amount of the product information and packaging. One can do this with little or no conscious thought. On the other hand, ‘systematic processing’ involves much deeper levels of thought. When people choose goods in this way, they engage in quite detailed analytical thinking – taking account of the product information, including its price, its perceived quality and so on. This form of thinking, which is both analytical and conscious, involves much more mental effort. The role of packaging is likely to be very different for each of these types of decision making. Under heuristic processing, for example, consumers may simply need to be able to distinguish the pack from those of competitors since they are choosing on the basis of what they usually do. Under these circumstances, the simple perceptual features of the pack may be critical – so that we can quickly discriminate what we choose from the other products on offer. Under systematic processing, however, product-related information may be more important, so the pack has to provide this in an easily identifiable form. Comparing competition Consumers will want to be able to compare the product with its competitors, so that they can determine which option is better for them. A crucial role of packaging in this situation is to communicate the characteristics of the product, highlighting its advantages over possible competitors. So, when are people likely to use a particular type of thinking? First, we know that people are cognitive misers; in other words, they are economical with their thinking because it requires some effort from them. Essentially, people only engage in effort-demanding systematic processing when the situation justifies it, for example when they are not tired or distracted and when the purchase is important to them. Second, people have an upper limit to the amount of information they can absorb. If we present too much, therefore, they will become confused. This, in turn, is likely to lead them to disengage and choose something else. Third, people often lack the knowledge or experience needed, so will not be able to deal with things they do not already understand, such as the ingredients of food products, for example. And fourth, people vary in the extent to which they enjoy thinking. Our research has differentiated between people with a high need for thinking – who routinely engage in analytical thinking – and those low in the need for cognition, who prefer to use very simple forms of thinking. Effectiveness varies This work has an important impact on packaging in that what makes packaging effective is likely to vary according to the type of processing strategy that consumers use when choosing between products. You need to understand how consumers are selecting your products if you are to develop packaging that is relevant. Furthermore, testing the effectiveness of your packaging can be ineffective if the methods you are employing concern one form of thinking (e.g. a focus group involving analytical thinking) but your consumers are purchasing in the other mode (i.e. the heuristic, shallow form of thinking). For the packaging industry, it is important that retailers identify their key goals. Sustaining a consumer’s commitment to a product may involve packaging that is distinctive at the heuristic level (if the consumers can recognize the product they will buy it) but without encouraging consumers to engage in systematic processing (prompting deeper level thinking that would include making comparisons with other products). Conversely, getting consumers to change brands may involve developing packaging that includes information that does stimulate systematic processing and thus encourages consumers to challenge their usual choice of product. Our work is investigating these issues, and the implications they have for developing effective packaging. Questions 25-30 Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage? Write answers in your answer sheet write: TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 25 Little research has been done on the link between packaging and consumers choosing a product. 26 A person who buys what another person recommends is using heuristic thinking. 27 Heuristic processing requires more energy than systematic processing. 28 The concept of heuristic processing was thought up by Dr Maule’s team. 29 A consumer who considers how mucha product costs, is using systematic processing. 30 For heuristic processing, packaging must be similar to other products. Questions 31 and 32 Choose the correct answer A, B, C or D and write the answers in your answer sheet. 31 When trying to determine how effective packaging is, testing can be made ‘ineffective’ if A. you rely upon a very narrow focus group. B. your consumers use only heuristic thinking. C. the chosen consumers use only shallow thinking. D. your tests do not match the consumers’ thinking type. 32 If a retailer wants consumers to change brands their packaging needs to be A. informative. B. distinctive. C. familiar. D. colourful. Questions 33-37 Complete the summary below. Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 33-37 on your answer sheet Comparing competition For consumers who want to compare products, it is important that your packaging stresses the 33 __________ of your product. We know that people only use systematic processing if the 34__________. makes it necessary or desirable. We also know that too much 35 __________ could make consumers choose another product. Furthermore, consumers may not fully understand details such as the 36__________ of a product. While some people like using systematic processing, others like to think in a 37 __________ way. Answers 1. B 2. D 3. A 4. E 5. C 6. B 7. D 8. minds 9. memories 10. knowledge 11. experience 12. speed 13. heart disease 14. drought 15. transpiration 16. wind 17. H 18. F 19. C 20. I 21. G 22. B 23. H 24. D 25. True 26. True 27. False 28. Not given 29. True 30. False 31. D 32. A 33. advantages/ characteristics 34. situation 35. information 36. ingredients 37. simple

Depression A. It is often more difficult for outsiders and non-sufferers to understand mental rather than physical illness in others. While it may be easy for us to sympathise with individuals living with the burden of a physical illness or disability, there is often a stigma attached to being mentally ill, or a belief that such conditions only exist in individuals who lack the strength of character to cope with the real world. The pressures of modern life seem to have resulted in an increase in cases of emotional disharmony and government initiatives in many countries have, of late, focussed on increasing the general public’s awareness and sympathy towards sufferers of mental illness and related conditions. B. Clinical depression, or ‘major depressive disorder’, a state of extreme sadness or despair, is said to affect up to almost 20% of the population at some point in their lives prior to the age of 40. Studies have shown that this disorder is the leading cause of disability in North America; in the UK almost 3 million people are said to be diagnosed with some form of depression at any one time, and experts believe that as many as a further 9 million other cases may go undiagnosed. World Health Organisation projections indicate that clinical depression may become the second most significant cause of disability’ on a global scale by 2020. However, such figures are not unanimously supported, as some experts believe that the diagnostic criteria used to identify՛ the condition are not precise enough, leading to other types of depression being wrongly classified as ‘clinical’. C. Many of us may experience periods of low morale or mood and feelings of dejection, as a natural human response to negative events in our lives such as bereavement, redundancy or breakdown of a relationship. Some of us may even experience periods of depression and low levels of motivation which have no tangible reason or trigger. Clinical depression is classified as an on-going state of negativity, with no tangible cause, where sufferers enter a spiral of persistent negative thinking, often experiencing irritability, perpetual tiredness and listlessness. Sufferers of clinical depression are said to be at higher risk of resorting to drug abuse or even suicide attempts than the rest of the population. D. Clinical depression is generally diagnosed when an individual is observed to exhibit an excessively depressed mood and/or ‘anhedonia’ – an inability to experience pleasure from positive experiences such as enjoying a meal or pleasurable social interaction – for a period of two weeks or more, in conjunction with five or more additional recognised symptoms. These additional symptoms may include overwhelming feelings of sadness; inability to sleep, or conversely, excessive sleeping; feelings of guilt, nervousness, abandonment or fear; inability to concentrate; interference with memory capabilities; fixation with death or extreme change in eating habits and associated weight gain or loss. E. Clinical depression was originally solely attributed to chemical imbalance in the brain, and while anti-depressant drugs which work to optimise levels of ‘feel good’ chemicals – serotonin and norepinephrine – are still commonly prescribed today, experts now believe that onset of depression may be caused by a number, and often combination of, physiological and socio-psychological factors. Treatment approaches vary quite dramatically from place to place and are often tailored to an individual’s particular situation; however, some variation of a combination of medication and psychotherapy is most commonly used. The more controversial electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may also be used where initial approaches fail. In extreme cases, where an individual exhibits behaviour which Indicates that they may cause physical harm to themselves, psychiatric hospitalisation may be necessary as a form of intensive therapy. F. Some recent studies, such as those published by the Archives of General Psychiatry, hold that around a quarter of diagnosed clinical depression cases should actually be considered as significant but none-the-less ordinary sadness and maladjustment to coping with trials in life, indicating that in such cases, psychotherapy rather than treatment through medication is required. Recovery as a result of psychotherapy tends, in most cases, to be a slower process than improvements related to medication; however, improvements as a result of psychological treatment, once achieved, have been observed in some individuals to be more long term and sustainable than those attained through prescription drugs. Various counselling approaches exist, though all focus on enhancing the subject’s ability to function on a personal and interpersonal level. Sessions involve encouragement of an individual to view themselves and their relationships in a more positive manner, with the intention of helping patients to replace negative thoughts with a more positive outlook. G. It is apparent that susceptibility to depression can run in families. However, it remains unclear as to whether this is truly an inherited genetic trait or whether biological and environmental factors common to family members may be at the root of the problem. In some cases, sufferers of depression may need to unlearn certain behaviours and attitudes they have established in life and develop new coping strategies designed to help them deal with problems they may encounter, undoing patterns of destructive behaviour they may have observed in their role models and acquired for themselves. Questions 1 – 5 Reading Passage 1 has seven sections A-G. Which paragraph contains the following information? 1. Details of treatment alternatives for worst case scenario depression. 2. Information regarding cases where drug treatment is inappropriate. 3. Details of how those diagnosed with depression may be more vulnerable than other members of society, 4. Information about society’s attitudes to depression and similar illnesses. 5. Information regarding why estimates of incidence of future growth in cases may be overly exaggerated. Questions 6 – 8 Choose THREE letters A-G. Which THREE of the following statements are true of depression? A. Governments have generally failed to take action to educate the general public about the condition. B. The highest reported number of cases are in the USA. C. In Britain, it is likely that there are more individuals who live with the condition without the help of a doctor than those being officially treated. D. Clinical depression may be triggered by divorce. E. Lethargy may be one of the symptoms of depression. F. Prescribed pharmaceuticals have radically changed over recent years. G. Approaches to treating depression are not universal. Questions 9 – 13 Complete the summary of paragraphs F and G with the list of words A-L below. Whilst recovery through counselling rather than medicine may be more (9)__________ , results once achieved may have more (10)___________with some patients. Counselling sessions are geared towards improving the subject’s relationship with others and their own (11)__________, encouraging sufferers of depression to take on a more (12)__________ outlook. The extent to which genetic disposition and sociological factors impact on state of mind is (13)__________. Many people undergoing counselling therapy do so with the purpose of unlearning negative behaviour and reactions. A. gratifying B. longevity C. ambition D. optimistic E. pessimistic F. difficulty G. inconclusive H. self-image I. gradual J. unequivocal K. immediate L. categorical THE FACE OF MODERN MAN? A. In response to the emergence of the ‘metro-sexual’ male, In other words, an urban, sophisticated man who is fashionable, well-groomed and unashamedly committed to ensuring his appearance is the best it can be, a whole new industry has developed. According to research conducted on behalf of a leading health and beauty retailer in the UK, the market for male cosmetics and related products has grown by 800% since the year 2000 and is expected to continue to increase significantly. The male grooming products market has become the fastest growing sector within the beauty and cosmetics industry, currently equivalent to around 1.5 billion pounds per annum. B. Over the last decade, a large number of brands and companies catering for enhancement of the male image have been successfully established, such operations ranging from male-only spas, boutiques, personal hygiene products, hair and skin care ranges, and male magazines with a strong leaning towards men’s fashion. Jamie Cawley, proprietor of a successful chain of London-based male grooming boutiques, holds that his company’s success in this highly competitive market can be attributed to the ‘exclusivity’ tactics they have employed, in that their products and services are clearly defined as male- orientated and distinctly separate to feminine products offered by other organisations. However, market analyst, Kim Sawyer, believes that future growth in the market can also be achieved through sale of unisex products marketed to both genders, this strategy becoming increasingly easy to implement as men’s interest in appearance and grooming has become more of a social norm. C. Traditionalists such as journalist Jim Howrard contend that the turn-around in male attitudes which has led to the success of the industry w’ould have been inconceivable a decade ago, given the conventional male role, psyche and obligation to exude masculinity; however, behavioural scientist Professor Ruth Chesterton argues that the metro-sexual man of today is in fact a modern incarnation of the ‘dandy’ of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. British dandies of that period, who were often of middle class backgrounds but imitated aristocratic lifestyles, were devoted to cultivation of their physical appearance, development of a refined demeanour and hedonistic pursuits. In France, she adds, dandyism, in contrast, was also strongly linked to political ideology and embraced by youths wishing to clearly define themselves from members of the working class revolutionary social groups of the period. D. Over recent decades, according to sociologist Ben Cameron, gender roles for both sexes have become less defined. According to research, he says, achievement of status and success have become less important in younger generations of men, as has the need to repress emotions. Cameron defines the traditional masculine role within western societies – hegemonic masculinity – as an expectation that males demonstrate physical strength and fitness, be decisive, self-assured, rational, successful and in control. Meeting this list of criteria and avoiding situations of demonstrating weakness, being overly emotional or in any way ’inferior’, he says, has placed a great deal of pressure on many members of the male population. So restrictive can society’s pressure to behave in a ‘masculine’ fashion on males be, Professor Chesterton states that in many situations men may respond in a way they deem acceptable to society, given their perceived gender role, rather than giving what they may actually consider to be the best and most objective response. E. Jim Howard says that learning and acquiring gender identity makes up a huge component of a child’s socialisation and that a child who exhibits non-standard behavioural characteristics often encounters social and self image difficulties due to the adverse reactions of their peers. According to Kim Sawyer, media images and messages also add to pressures associated with the male image, stating that even in these modern and changing times, hegemonic masculinity is often idolised and portrayed as the definitive male persona. F. Whilst male stereotypes and ideals vary from culture to culture, according to Professor Chesterton, a universal trait in stereotypical male behaviour is an increased likelihood to take risks than is generally found in female behaviour patterns. For this reason, she attributes such behaviour to the influence of genetic predisposition as opposed to socially learned behaviour. Men, she says, are three times more likely to die due to accident than females, a strong indication he says of their greater willingness to involve themselves in precarious situations. Ben Cameron also says that an attitude of invincibility is more dominant in males and is a predominant factor in the trend for fewer medical checkups in males and late diagnosis of chronic and terminal illness than in their more cautious and vigilant female counterparts. G. Jamie Cawley, however, remains optimistic that the metro-sexual culture will continue and that what society accepts as the face of masculinity will continue to change. He attributes this to a male revolt against the strict confines of gender roles, adding that such changes of attitudes have led and will continue to lead to establishment of greater equality between the sexes. Questions 14 – 18 Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs A-G. Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-D and F-G from the list of headings below. List of Headings i. Basis and predictions ii. Revolution or recurrence? iii. Servicing a growing demand iv. The surfacing of a new phenomenon v. A long-held mindset and its downsides vi. Influence on minors vii. Hereditary predilection viii. Effects of external pressures Example: Paragraph E; Answer: viii 14. Paragraph B 15. Paragraph C 16. Paragraph D 17. Paragraph F 18. Paragraph G Questions 19 – 22 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2? TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 19. Sales in the female health and beauty market have slightly declined over recent years. 20. The rise of ‘dandyism’ in England and France is attributed to similar factors. 21. Emotional reaction is contradictory to hegemonic masculine behaviour. 22. There is a correlation between men’s belief that they are indestructible and their decreased likelihood to seek medical advice. Questions 23 – 27 Look at the following list of statements (Questions 23-27) based on changes in male image and behavior. Match each statement with the correct person A-E. 23. Male behaviour patterns have changed in a way that would have been considered implausible in the past. 24. Traditional benchmarks of masculinity are often exacerbated by the press. 25. Metro-sexual culture has developed as a response to modern men’s dissatisfaction with traditional images. 26. The need to conform to society’s expectations of male behaviour may impede men’s decision-making and judgement. 27. There is potential in a market which makes no differentiation between products for males and females. List of Contributors A. Jamie Cawley B. Kim Sawyer C. Jim Howard D. Professor Ruth Chesterton E. Ben Cameron CLINICAL TRIALS A. The benefits of vitamins to our well-being are now familiar to most; however, when the link between diets lacking in citrus fruits and the development of the affliction ‘scurvy’ in sailors was first discovered by James Lind in 1747, the concept of vitamins was yet to be discovered. Scurvy, which causes softening of the gums, oral bleeding and, in extreme cases, tooth loss, is now known to present as a result of lack of Vitamin C in the diet. Additional symptoms include depression, liver spots on the skin – particularly arms and legs – loss of colour in the face and partial immobility; high incidence of the ailment aboard ships took an enormous toll on the crew’s ability to complete essential tasks while at sea. B. Suggestions that citrus fruit may lower the incidence or indeed prevent scurvy had been made as early as 1600. It was Lind, however, who would conduct the first clinical trial by studying the effect within scientific experimental parameters. However, while the correlation between consuming citrus fruit and avoidance of scurvy was established, the preventative properties were attributed to the presence of acids in the fruit and not what would later be identified as vitamin content. C. Lind’s subjects for his trial consisted of twelve sailors already exhibiting symptoms of scurvy. These individuals were split into six groups; each pair common diet. Pair 1 were rationed a daily quart of cider, pair 2 elixir of vitriol, pair 3 a given quantity of vinegar, pair 4 seawater, pair 5 oranges and a lemon and pair 6 barley water. Despite the trial having to be aborted after day five, when supplies of fruit were depleted, the findings of the interventional study showed that only the control group who were given fruit supplements showed any significant improvement in their condition (one had, in fact, recovered to the extent that he was fit enough to return to work). The immediate impact on sailors’ health and incidence of scurvy on board ship was, however, limited as Lind and other physicians remained convinced that the curative effect was acid based. Therefore, while consumption of citrus fruit was recommended, it was often replaced by cheaper acid supplements. The preventative Qualities of citrus fruit against scurvy were not truly recognised until 1800, though throughout the latter part of the 1700s, lemon juice was increasingly administered as a cure for sailors already afflicted. D. Nowadays, the implementation of findings discovered in clinical trials into mainstream medicine remains an arduous and lengthy process and the clinical trials themselves represent only a small stage of the process of developing a new drug from research stage to launch in the marketplace. On average, for every thousand drugs conceived, only one of the thousand actually makes it to the stage of clinical trial, other projects being abandoned for a variety of reasons. Stages which need to be fulfilled prior to clinical trial – where the treatment is actually tested on human subjects -include discovery, purification, characterisation and laboratory testing. E. A new pharmaceutical for treatment of a disease such as cancer typically takes a period of 6 years or more before reaching the stage of clinical trial. Since legislation requires subjects participating in such trials to be monitored for a considerable period of time so that side-effects and benefits can be assessed correctly, a further eight years typically passes between the stage of a drug entering clinical trial and being approved for general use. One of the greatest barriers to clinical trial procedures is availability of subjects willing to participate, Criteria for selection is rigorous and trials where subjects are required to be suffering from the disease in question, experience tremendous recruitment difficulties as individuals already vulnerable due to the effects of their condition, are often reluctant to potentially put their health at higher levels of risk. F. Clinical trials are conducted in line with a strict protocol and the stages of a trial are generally defined by five distinct phases. A drug that is deemed safe and effective enough to reach the end of stage three is most often, at that point, approved for use in mainstream medicine. Phase 0 involves a first-in-human trial (usually conducted using a small population often to fifteen subjects) with the purpose of ascertaining that the drug’s effect is, in fact, the same as predicted in pre-clinical studies. If no concerns are raised, the drug then enters Phase 1 of trial where a modest selection (usually between twenty and eighty subjects) of usually healthy volunteers, is exposed to the drug. However, for HIV and cancer drugs, this stage is conducted using patients suffering from the condition in question. There are two main variations of Phase I testing, these being SAD (single ascending dose) and MAD (multiple ascending dose). The former involves a single administration of a drug at a pre-determined level to one group of subjects, and the second involves administration of a pre-determined sequence of dosages. G. Phases 0 and 1 are geared towards establishing the safety of a pharmaceutical and once this has been confirmed, drugs pass into Phase II testing where, while safety continues to be monitored, the drug’s effectiveness is also assessed using a larger group of subjects, ranging from twenty up to three hundred. In some trials, Phase II is regarded as involving two sub-stages, in that Phase 11(a) may be concerned with establishing optimum dosage levels and Phase 11(b) to evaluate effectiveness. Phase III is the most expensive, time-consuming and complex stage of the trial process, often involving as many as 3000 patients. At this stage, a new drug’s effectiveness is rigorously tested and compared to that of the best of the existing alternatives already approved and in common use. Where research indicates that a pharmaceutical has passed all requirements of Phases 0, I, II and III, submissions to relevant regulatory and licensing bodies are then made. H. The final phase of clinical testing, Phase IV, is conducted over a lengthy period of time post-launch for general usage. This stage is, in essence, a safety net which involves continued monitoring of the drug, its properties and side-effects through which any long term adverse reactions, which remained undetected in the pre-launch clinical testing time frame can be discovered. Identification of harmful effects at this stage, on occasion, has led to withdrawal of a drug from the market; for example, as was the case with cerivastin, a cholesterol-lowering drug, which was later found to have an adverse effect on muscle reaction which, on occasion, had fatal consequences. Questions 28 – 31 Complete the sentences below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. 28. In advanced cases of scurvy suffers may experience ___________ along with numerous other symptoms. 29. Fruit adds were mistakenly heralded as having __________ in incidents of scurvy prior to the identification of vitamins. 30. Lind’s subjects for the first clinical trial were seamen who were at the time of _________ the condition in question. 31. All groups in Lind’s experiment were given a _________ along with specific rations which were varied for each control group. Questions 32 – 35 Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D 32. The first clinical trial was conducted for only 5 days because A. that period of time was the planned protocol. B. the subjects in the relevant control group had already recovered. C. resources fundamental to the experiment were used up. D. those taking part in the trial were too sick to continue. 33. The impact of findings from the trial were not used to full potential because A. Lind failed to recommend consumption of citrus fruit. B. ineffective substitutes were often made available. C. other physicians were unconvinced by his evidence. D. the trial was not conducted over a long enough period to be valid. 34. One of the greatest hindrances to clinical testing today is A. low volunteer rates. B. the poor success rate. C. the strict protocol. D. shortage of laboratory staff. 35. Clinical testing for HIV and cancer drugs differs from usual procedures because A. the clinical trial phase is much longer. B. the MAD instead of the SAD approach is used during Phase I. C. subjects exhibiting no symptoms of the illness are not used. D. effectiveness is more rigorously tested than safety. Questions 36 – 40 Complete the flowchart. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. Phases of Clinical Testing Phase 0: 10-15 subjects tested to confirm assumptions made in the (36)____________ stages were accurate. Phase 1: 2 different approaches may be used. One involving one-off exposure to the drug the other involving a (37)________________. Phase 2: May involve two sub-stages to establish (38)________________ quantities and usefulness. Phase 3: The most (39)______________, protracted and costly of all stages. Submissions made post-testing at this stage of all is agreeable. Phase 4: Precautionary monitoring continues post-launch. Any serious issues uncovered can, on occasion, result in 40________________. Answers 1. E 2. F 3. C 4. A 5. B 6. C 7. E 8. G 9. I 10. B 11. H 12. D 13. G 14. iii 15. ii 16. v 17. vii 18. i 19. not given 20. false 21. true 22. true 23. C 24. B 25. A 26. D 27. B 28. tooth loss 29. preventive properties 30. exhibiting symptoms 31. common diet 32. C 33. B 34. A 35. C 36. pre-clinical 37. sequence 38. optimum 39. complex 40. withdrawal

A Spark, A Flint; How Fire Leapt To Life The control of fire was the first and perhaps greatest of humanity’s steps towards a life-enhancing technology. To early man, fire was a divine gift randomly delivered in the form of lightning, forest fire or burning lava. Unable to make flame for themselves, the earliest people probably stored fire by keeping slow burning logs alight or by carrying charcoal in pots. How and where man learnt how to produce flame at will is unknown. It was probably a secondary invention, accidentally made during tool-making operations with wood or stone. Studies of primitive societies suggest that the earliest method of making fire was through friction. European peasants would insert a wooden drill in a round hole and rotate it briskly between their palms this process could be speeded up by wrapping a cord around the drill and pulling on each end. The Ancient Greeks used lenses or concave mirrors to concentrate the sun’s rays and burning glasses were also used by Mexican Aztecs and the Chinese. Percussion methods of fire-lighting date back to Paleolithic times, when some Stone Age tool-makers discovered that chipping flints produced sparks. The technique became more efficient after the discovery of iron, about 5000 vears ago In Arctic North America, the Eskimos produced a slow-burning spark by striking quartz against iron pyrites, a compound that contains sulphur. The Chinese lit their fires by striking porcelain with bamboo. In Europe, the combination of steel, flint and tinder remained the main method of fire-lighting until the mid 19th century. Fire-lighting was revolutionised by the discovery of phosphorus, isolated in 1669 by a German alchemist trying to transmute silver into gold. Impressed by the element’s combustibility, several 17th century chemists used it to manufacture fire-lighting devices, but the results were dangerously inflammable. With phosphorus costing the equivalent of several hundred pounds per ounce, the first matches were expensive. The quest for a practical match really began after 1781 when a group of French chemists came up with the Phosphoric Candle or Ethereal Match, a sealed glass tube containing a twist of paper tipped with phosphorus. When the tube was broken, air rushed in, causing the phosphorus to self- combust. An even more hazardous device, popular in America, was the Instantaneous Light Box — a bottle filled with sulphuric acid into which splints treated with chemicals were dipped. The first matches resembling those used today were made in 1827 by John Walker, an English pharmacist who borrowed the formula from a military rocket-maker called Congreve. Costing a shilling a box, Congreves were splints coated with sulphur and tipped with potassium chlorate. To light them, the user drew them quickly through folded glass paper. Walker never patented his invention, and three years later it was copied by a Samuel Jones, who marketed his product as Lucifers. About the same time, a French chemistry student called Charles Sauria produced the first “strike-anywhere” match by substituting white phosphorus for the potassium chlorate in the Walker formula. However, since white phosphorus is a deadly poison, from 1845 match-makers exposed to its fumes succumbed to necrosis, a disease that eats away jaw-bones. It wasn’t until 1906 that the substance was eventually banned. That was 62 years after a Swedish chemist called Pasch had discovered non-toxic red or amorphous phosphorus, a development exploited commercially by Pasch’s compatriot J E Lundstrom in 1885. Lundstrom’s safety matches were safe because the red phosphorus was non-toxic; it was painted on to the striking surface instead of the match tip, which contained potassium chlorate with a relatively high ignition temperature of 182 degrees centigrade. America lagged behind Europe in match technology and safety standards. It wasn’t until 1900 that the Diamond Match Company bought a French patent for safety matches — but the formula did not work properly in the different climatic conditions prevailing in America and it was another 11 years before scientists finally adapted the French patent for the US. The Americans, however, can claim several “firsts” in match technology and marketing. In 1892 the Diamond Match Company pioneered book matches. The innovation didn’t catch on until after 1896, when a brewery had the novel idea of advertising its product in match books. Today book matches are the most widely used type in the US, with 90 percent handed out free by hotels, restaurants and others. Other American innovations include an anti-afterglow solution to prevent the match from smoldering after it has been blown out; and the waterproof match, which lights after eight hours in water. Questions 1-8 Complete the summary below. Choose your answers from the box given below and write them in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet. NB There are more words than spaces so you will not use them all you may use any of the words more than once. EARLY FIRE-LIGHTING METHODS They tried to (1)…………………….burning logs or charcoal (2)…………………… that they could create fire themselves. It is suspected that the first man-made flames were produced by (3)…………………The very first fire-lighting methods involved the creation of (4)……………………by, for example, rapidly (5)……………………. a wooden stick in a round hole. The use of (6)………………………… or persistent chipping was also widespread in Europe and among other peoples such as the Chinese and (7)…………………….. European practice of this method continued until the 1850s (8)…………………….the discovery of phosphorus some years earlier. Mexicansrandomrotatingdespitepreserverealisingsunlightlackingheavenlypercussionchancefrictionunawarewithoutmakeheatingeskimossurpriseduntilsmoke Questions 9-15 Look at the following notes that have been made about the matches described in Reading passage. Decide which type of match (A-H) corresponds with each description and write your answers in the boxes 9-15. Notes 9. made using a les poisonous type of phosphorus 10. identical to a previous type of match 11. caused a deadly illness 12. first to look like modern matches 13. first matches used for advertising 14. relied on an airtight glass container 15. made with the help of an army design Type of matches A the Ethereal Match B the instantaneous lightbox C congreves D lucifers E the first strike anywhere match F Lundstrom’s safety match G book matches H waterproof matches Zoo Conservation Programmes One of London Zoo’s recent advertisements caused me some irritation, so patently did it distort reality. Headlined “Without zoos you might as well tell these animals to get stuffed”, it was bordered with illustrations of several endangered species and went on to extol the myth that without zoos like London Zoo these animals “will almost certainly disappear forever”. With the zoo world’s rather mediocre record on conservation, one might be forgiven for being slightly sceptical about such an advertisement. Zoos were originally created as places of entertainment, and their suggested involvement with conservation didn’t seriously arise until about 30 years ago, when the Zoological Society of London held the first formal international meeting on the subject. Eight years later, a series of world conferences took place, entitled “The Breeding of Endangered Species”, and from this point onwards conservation became the zoo community’s buzzword. This commitment has now been clearly defined in The World Zoo Conservation Strategy (WZGS, September 1993), which although an important and welcome document does seem to be based on an unrealistic optimism about the nature of the zoo industry. The WZCS estimates that there are about 10,000 zoos in the world, of which around 1,000 represent a core of quality collections capable of participating in co-ordinated conservation programmes. This is probably the document’s first failing, as I believe that 10,000 is a serious underestimate of the total number of places masquerading as zoological establishments. Of course it is difficult to get accurate data but, to put the issue into perspective, I have found that, in a year of working in Eastern Europe, I discover fresh zoos on almost a weekly basis. The second flaw in the reasoning of the WZCS document is the naive faith it places in its 1,000 core zoos. One would assume that the calibre of these institutions would have been carefully examined, but it appears that the criterion for inclusion on this select list might merely be that the zoo is a member of a zoo federation or association. This might be a good starting point, working on the premise that members must meet certain standards, but again the facts don’t support the theory. The greatly respected American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA) has had extremely dubious members, and in the UK the Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland has occasionally had members that have been roundly censured in the national press. These include Robin Hill Adventure Park on the Isle of Wight, which many considered the most notorious collection of animals in the country. This establishment, which for years was protected by the Isle’s local council (which viewed it as a tourist amenity), was finally closed down following a damning report by a veterinary inspector appointed under the terms of the Zoo Licensing Act 1981. As it was always a collection of dubious repute, one is obliged to reflect upon the standards that the Zoo Federation sets when granting membership. The situation is even worse in developing countries where little money is available for redevelopment and it is hard to see a way of incorporating collections into the overall scheme of the WZCS. Even assuming that the WZCS’s 1,000 core zoos are all of a high standard complete with scientific staff and research facilities, trained and dedicated keepers, accommodation that permits normal or natural behaviour, and a policy of co-operating fully with one another what might be the potential for conservation? Colin Tudge, author of Last Animals at the Zoo (Oxford University Press, 1992), argues that “if the world”s zoos worked together in co-operative breeding programmes, then even without further expansion they could save around 2,000 species of endangered land vertebrates’. This seems an extremely optimistic proposition from a man who must be aware of the failings and weaknesses of the zoo industry the man who, when a member of the council of London Zoo, had to persuade the zoo to devote more of its activities to conservation. Moreover, where are the facts to support such optimism? Today approximately 16 species might be said to have been “saved” by captive breeding programmes, although a number of these can hardly be looked upon as resounding successes. Beyond that, about a further 20 species are being seriously considered for zoo conservation programmes. Given that the international conference at London Zoo was held 30 years ago, this is pretty slow progress, and a long way off Tudge’s target of 2,000. Questions 16-22 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 2? In boxes 16-22 write YES if the statement agrees with the writer NO if the statement contradicts the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 16 London Zoo’s advertisements are dishonest. 17 Zoos made an insignificant contribution to conservation up until 30 years ago. 18 The WZCS document is not known in Eastern Europe. 19 Zoos in the WZCS select list were carefully inspected. 20 No one knew how the animals were being treated at Robin Hill Adventure Park. 21 Colin Tudge was dissatisfied with the treatment of animals at London Zoo. 22 The number of successful zoo conservation programmes is unsatisfactory. Questions 23-25 Choose the appropriate letters A-D and write them in boxes 23-25 on your answer sheet. 23 What were the objectives of the WZCS document? A to improve the calibre of zoos world-wide B to identify zoos suitable for conservation practice C to provide funds for zoos in underdeveloped countries D to list the endangered species of the world 24 Why does the writer refer to Robin Hill Adventure Park? A to support the Isle of Wight local council B to criticise the 1981 Zoo Licensing Act C to illustrate a weakness in the WZCS document D to exemplify the standards in AAZPA zoos 25 What word best describes the writer’s response to Colin Tudges’ prediction on captive breeding programmes? A disbelieving B impartial C prejudiced D accepting Questions 26-28 The writer mentions a number of factors which lead him to doubt the value of the WZCS document. Which THREE of the following factors are mentioned? Write your answers (A-F) in boxes 26-28 on your answer sheet. List of Factors A the number of unregistered zoos in the world B the lack of money in developing countries C the actions of the Isle of Wight local council D the failure of the WZCS to examine the standards of the “core zoos” E the unrealistic aim of the WZCS in view of the number of species “saved” to date F the policies of WZCS zoo managers Architecture – Reaching For The Sky Architecture is the art and science of designing buildings and structures. A building reflects the scientific and technological achievements of the age as well as the ideas and aspirations of the designer and client. The appearance of individual buildings, however, is often controversial. The use of an architectural style cannot be said to start or finish on a specific date. Neither is it possible to say exactly what characterises a particular movement. But the origins of what is now generally known as modern architecture can be traced back to the social and technological changes of the 18th and 19th centuries. Instead of using timber, stone and traditional building techniques, architects began to explore ways of creating buildings by using the latest technology and materials such as steel, glass and concrete strengthened steel bars, known as reinforced concrete. Technological advances also helped bring about the decline of rural industries and an increase in urban populations as people moved to the towns to work in the new factories. Such rapid and uncontrolled growth helped to turn parts of cities into slums. By the 1920s architects throughout Europe were reacting against the conditions created by industrialisation. A new style of architecture emerged to reflect more idealistic notions for the future. It was made possible by new materials and construction techniques and was known as Modernism. By the 1930s many buildings emerging from this movement were designed in the International Style. This was largely characterised by the bold use of new materials and simple, geometric forms, often with white walls supported by stilt¬like pillars. These were stripped of unnecessary decoration that would detract from their primary purpose — to be used or lived in. Walter Gropius, Charles Jeanneret (better known as Le Corbusier) and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe were among the most influential of the many architects who contributed to the development of Modernism in the first half of the century. But the economic depression of the 1930s and the second world war (1939-45) prevented their ideas from being widely realised until the economic conditions improved and war-torn cities had to be rebuilt. By the 1950s, the International Style had developed into a universal approach to building, which standardised the appearance of new buildings in cities across the world. Unfortunately, this Modernist interest in geometric simplicity and function became exploited for profit. The rediscovery of quick-and-easy-to-handle reinforced concrete and an improved ability to prefabricate building sections meant that builders could meet the budgets of commissioning authorities and handle a renewed demand for development quickly and cheaply. But this led to many badly designed buildings, which discredited the original aims of Modernism. Influenced by Le Corbusier’s ideas on town planning, every large British city built multi-storey housing estates in the 1960s. Mass- produced, low-cost high-rises seemed to offer a solution to the problem of housing a growing inner-city population. But far from meeting human needs, the new estates often proved to be windswept deserts lacking essential social facilities and services. Many of these buildings were poorly designed and constructed and have since been demolished. By the 1970s, a new respect for the place of buildings within the existing townscape arose. Preserving historic buildings or keeping only their facades (or fronts) grew common. Architects also began to make more use of building styles and materials that were traditional to the area. The architectural style usually referred to as High Tech was also emerging. It celebrated scientific and engineering achievements by openly parading the sophisticated techniques used in construction. Such buildings are commonly made of metal and glass; examples are Stansted airport and the Lloyd’s building in London. Disillusionment at the failure of many of the poor imitations of Modernist architecture led to interest in various styles and ideas from the past and present. By the 1980s the coexistence of different styles of architecture in the same building became known as Post Modern. Other architects looked back to the classical tradition. The trend in architecture now favours smaller scale building design that reflects a growing public awareness of environmental issues such as energy efficiency. Like the Modernists, people today recognise that a well designed environment improves the quality of life but is not necessarily achieved by adopting one well defined style of architecture. Twentieth century architecture will mainly be remembered for its tall buildings. They have been made possible by the development of light steel frames and safe passenger lifts. They originated in the US over a century ago to help meet the demand for more economical use of land. As construction techniques improved, the skyscraper became a reality. Questions 29-35 Complete the table below using information from Reading Passage 3. Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 29-35 on your answer sheet. PeriodStyle of PeriodBuilding MaterialsCharacteristicsBefore 18th centuryexample: traditional(29)…………………..1920sintroduction of (30)………………..steel, glass and concreteexploration of latest technology1930s – 1950s(31)…………………….geometric forms1960sdecline of Modernismpre-fabricated sections(32)……………………1970send of Modernist eratraditional materials(33)…………………of historic buildings1970sbeginning of (34)………………erametal and glasssophisticated techniques paraded1980sPost-Modernism(35)……………………… Questions 36-40 Reading Passage 3 describes a number of cause and effect relationships. Match each Cause (36-40) in List A, with its Effect (A-H) in List B. Write your answers (A-H) in boxes 36 40 on your answer sheet. NB There are more effects in List B than you will need, so you will not use all of them. You may use any effect more than once if you wish. List A CausesList B Effects36. A rapid movement of people from rural areas to cities is triggered by technological advance 37. Buildings become simple and functional 38. An economic depression and the second world war hit Europe 39. Multi-storey housing estates are built according to contemporary ideas on town planning 40. Less land must be used for buildingA The quality of life is improved B Architecture reflects the age C A number of these have been knocked down D Light steel frames and lifts are developed E Historical buildings are preserved F All decoration is removed G Parts of cities become slums H Modernist ideas cannot be put into practice until the second half of the 20th century Answers 1. preserve 2. unaware 3. chance 4. friction 5. rotating 6. percussion 7. eskimos 8. despite 9. F 10. D 11. E 12. C 13. G 14. A 15. C 16. yes 17. yes 18. not give 19. no 20. no 21. not given 22. yes 23. B 24. C 25. A 26. A 27. D 28. E 29. timber and stone 30. modernism 31. international style 32. badly designed building 33. preservation 34. high-tech 35. different styles together 36. G 37. F 38. H 39. C 40. D

Aphantasia: A life without mental images Most people can readily conjure images inside their head – known as their mind’s eye. But this year scientists have described a condition, aphantasia, in which some people are unable to visualise mental images. Niel Kenmuir, from Lancaster, has always had a blind mind’s eye. He knew he was different even in childhood. “My stepfather, when I couldn’t sleep, told me to count sheep, and he explained what he meant, I tried to do it and I couldn’t,” he says. “I couldn’t see any sheep jumping over fences, there was nothing to count.” Our memories are often tied up in images, think back to a wedding or first day at school. As a result, Niel admits, some aspects of his memory are “terrible”, but he is very good at remembering facts. And, like others with aphantasia, he struggles to recognise faces. Yet he does not see aphantasia as a disability, but simply a different way of experiencing life. Mind’s eye blind Ironically, Niel now works in a bookshop, although he largely sticks to the non-fiction aisles. His condition begs the question what is going on inside his picture-less mind. I asked him what happens when he tries to picture his fiancee. “This is the hardest thing to describe, what happens in my head when I think about things,” he says. “When I think about my fiancee there is no image, but I am definitely thinking about her, I know today she has her hair up at the back, she’s brunette. But I’m not describing an image I am looking at, I’m remembering features about her, that’s the strangest thing and maybe that is a source of some regret.” The response from his mates is a very sympathetic: “You’re weird.” But while Niel is very relaxed about his inability to picture things, it is a cause of distress for others. One person who took part in a study into aphantasia said he had started to feel “isolated” and “alone” after discovering that other people could see images in their heads. Being unable to reminisce about his mother years after her death led to him being “extremely distraught”. The super-visualiser At the other end of the spectrum is children’s book illustrator, Lauren Beard, whose work on the Fairytale Hairdresser series will be familiar to many six-year-olds. Her career relies on the vivid images that leap into her mind’s eye when she reads text from her author. When I met her in her box-room studio in Manchester, she was working on a dramatic scene in the next book. The text describes a baby perilously climbing onto a chandelier. “Straightaway I can visualise this grand glass chandelier in some sort of French kind of ballroom, and the little baby just swinging off it and really heavy thick curtains,” she says. “I think I have a strong imagination, so I can create the world and then keep adding to it so it gets sort of bigger and bigger in my mind and the characters too they sort of evolve. I couldn’t really imagine what it’s like to not imagine, I think it must be a bit of a shame really.” Not many people have mental imagery as vibrant as Lauren or as blank as Niel. They are the two extremes of visualisation. Adam Zeman, a professor of cognitive and behavioural neurology, wants to compare the lives and experiences of people with aphantasia and its polar-opposite hyperphantasia. His team, based at the University of Exeter, coined the term aphantasia this year in a study in the journal Cortex. Prof Zeman tells the BBC: “People who have contacted us say they are really delighted that this has been recognised and has been given a name, because they have been trying to explain to people for years that there is this oddity that they find hard to convey to others.” How we imagine is clearly very subjective – one person’s vivid scene could be another’s grainy picture. But Prof Zeman is certain that aphantasia is real. People often report being able to dream in pictures, and there have been reported cases of people losing the ability to think in images after a brain injury. He is adamant that aphantasia is “not a disorder” and says it may affect up to one in 50 people. But he adds: “I think it makes quite an important difference to their experience of life because many of us spend our lives with imagery hovering somewhere in the mind’s eye which we inspect from time to time, it’s a variability of human experience.” Questions 1–5 Do the following statements agree with the information in the IELTS reading text? In boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 1. Aphantasia is a condition, which describes people, for whom it is hard to see images in their imagination. 2. Niel Kenmuir was unable to count sheep in his head. 3. Many people with aphantasia struggle to remember personal traits of different people. 4. The author met Lauren Beard when she was working on a scene in her next book. 5. Different people expressed their satisfaction that the problem of aphantasia and hyperphantasia has finally been recognized. Questions 6–8 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write the correct letter in boxes 6–8 on your answer sheet. 6. People with aphantasia are generally good at: A Remembering faces B Remembering facts C Remembering traits D This condition has no advantages 7. Unlike Niel, Lauren: A Can visualise different objects B Can write books C Has aphantasia D Has no conditions 8. Adam Zeman wants to: A Cure aphantasia B Compare people with different conditions C Do researches D Learn more about aphantasia and hyperphantasia Questions 9–14 Complete the sentences below. Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. 9. Niel’s colleagues describe him as a………………………….. person. 10. Only a small fraction of people have imagination as…………………………. as Lauren does. 11. Hyperphantasia is………………………. to aphantasia. 12. Many people spend their lives with……………………………. somewhere in the mind’s eye. 13. Prof Zeman is………………………………. that aphantasia is not an illness. 14. Prof Zeman strongly believes that aphantasia is not a……………… As More Tech Start-Ups Stay Private, So Does the Money Not long ago, if you were a young, brash technologist with a world-conquering start-up idea, there was a good chance you spent much of your waking life working toward a single business milestone: taking your company public. Though luminaries of the tech industry have always expressed skepticism and even hostility toward the finance industry, tech’s dirty secret was that it looked to Wall Street and the ritual of a public offering for affirmation — not to mention wealth. But something strange has happened in the last couple of years: The initial public offering of stock has become déclassé. For start-up entrepreneurs and their employees across Silicon Valley, an initial public offering is no longer a main goal. Instead, many founders talk about going public as a necessary evil to be postponed as long as possible because it comes with more problems than benefits. “If you can get $200 million from private sources, then yeah, I don’t want my company under the scrutiny of the unwashed masses who don’t understand my business,” said Danielle Morrill, the chief executive of Mattermark, a start-up that organizes and sells information about the start-up market. “That’s actually terrifying to me. Silicon Valley’s sudden distaste for the I.P.O. — rooted in part in Wall Street’s skepticism of new tech stocks — may be the single most important psychological shift underlying the current tech boom. Staying private affords start-up executives the luxury of not worrying what outsiders think and helps them avoid the quarterly earnings treadmill. It also means Wall Street is doing what it failed to do in the last tech boom: using traditional metrics like growth and profitability to price companies. Investors have been tough on Twitter, for example, because its user growth has slowed. They have been tough on Box, the cloud-storage company that went public last year, because it remains unprofitable. And the e-commerce company Zulily, which went public last year, was likewise punished when it cut its guidance for future sales. Scott Kupor, the managing partner at the venture capital firm Andreessen Horowitz, and his colleagues said in a recent report that despite all the attention start-ups have received in recent years, tech stocks are not seeing unusually high valuations. In fact, their share of the overall market has remained stable for 14 years, and far off the peak of the late 1990s. That unwillingness to cut much slack to young tech companies limits risk for regular investors. If the bubble pops, the unwashed masses, if that’s what we are, aren’t as likely to get washed out. Private investors, on the other hand, are making big bets on so-called unicorns — the Silicon Valley jargon for start-up companies valued at more than a billion dollars. If many of those unicorns flop, most Americans will escape unharmed, because losses will be confined to venture capitalists and hedge funds that have begun to buy into tech start-ups, as well as tech founders and their employees. The reluctance — and sometimes inability — to go public is spurring the unicorns. By relying on private investors for a longer period of time, start-ups get more runway to figure out sustainable business models. To delay their entrance into the public markets, firms like Airbnb, Dropbox, Palantir, Pinterest, Uber and several other large start-ups are raising hundreds of millions, and in some cases billions, that they would otherwise have gained through an initial public offering. “These companies are going public, just in the private market,” Dan Levitan, the managing partner of the venture capital firm Maveron, told me recently. He means that in many cases, hedge funds and other global investors that would have bought shares in these firms after an I.P.O. are deciding to go into late-stage private rounds. There is even an oxymoronic term for the act of obtaining private money in place of a public offering: It’s called a “private I.P.O.” The delay in I.P.O.s has altered how some venture capital firms do business. Rather than waiting for an initial offering, Maveron, for instance, says it now sells its stake in a start-up to other, larger private investors once it has made about 100 times its initial investment. It is the sort of return that once was only possible after an I.P.O. But there is also a downside to the new aversion to initial offerings. When the unicorns do eventually go public and begin to soar — or whatever it is that fantastical horned beasts tend to do when they’re healthy — the biggest winners will be the private investors that are now bearing most of the risk. It used to be that public investors who got in on the ground floor of an initial offering could earn historic gains. If you invested $1,000 in Amazon at its I.P.O. in 1997, you would now have nearly $250,000. If you had invested $1,000 in Microsoft in 1986, you would have close to half a million. Public investors today are unlikely to get anywhere near such gains from tech I.P.O.s. By the time tech companies come to the market, the biggest gains have already been extracted by private backers. Just 53 technology companies went public in 2014, which is around the median since 1980, but far fewer than during the boom of the late 1990s and 2000, when hundreds of tech companies went public annually, according to statistics maintained by Jay Ritter, a professor of finance at the University of Florida. Today’s companies are also waiting longer. In 2014, the typical tech company hitting the markets was 11 years old, compared with a median age of seven years for tech I.P.O.s since 1980. Over the last few weeks, I’ve asked several founders and investors why they’re waiting; few were willing to speak on the record about their own companies, but their answers all amounted to “What’s the point?” Initial public offerings were also ways to compensate employees and founders who owned lots of stock, but there are now novel mechanisms — such as selling shares on a secondary market — for insiders to cash in on some of their shares in private companies. Still, some observers cautioned that the new trend may be a bad deal for employees who aren’t given much information about the company’s performance. “One thing employees may be confused about is when companies tell them, ‘We’re basically doing a private I.P.O.,’ it might make them feel like there’s less risk than there really is,” said Ms. Morrill of Mattermark. But she said it was hard to persuade people that their paper gains may never materialize. “The Kool-Aid is really strong,” she said. If the delay in I.P.O.s becomes a normal condition for Silicon Valley, some observers say tech companies may need to consider new forms of compensation for workers. “We probably need to fundamentally rethink how do private companies compensate employees, because that’s going to be an issue,” said Mr. Kupor, of Andreessen Horowitz. During a recent presentation for Andreessen Horowitz’s limited partners — the institutions that give money to the venture firm — Marc Andreessen, the firm’s co-founder, told the journalist Dan Primack that he had never seen a sharper divergence in how investors treat public- and private-company chief executives. “They tell the public C.E.O., ‘Give us the money back this quarter,’ and they tell the private C.E.O., ‘No problem, go for 10 years,’ ” Mr. Andreessen said. At some point this tension will be resolved. “Private valuations will not forever be higher than public valuations,” said Mr. Levitan, of Maveron. “So the question is, Will private markets capitulate and go down or will public markets go up?” If the private investors are wrong, employees, founders and a lot of hedge funds could be in for a reckoning. But if they’re right, it will be you and me wearing the frown — the public investors who missed out on the next big thing. Questions 15-18 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 15. How much funds would you gain by now, if you had invested 1000$ in the Amazon in 1997? A $250,000 B close to $500,000 C it is not stated in the text D no funds 16. Nowadays founders talk about going public as a: A necessity B benefit C possibility D profit 17. In which time period was the biggest number of companies going public? A early 1990s B late 1900s and 2000s C 1980s D late 1990s 18. According to the text, which of the following is true? A Private valuations may be forever higher than public ones. B Public valuations eventually will become even less valuable. C The main question is whether the public market increase or the private market decrease. D The pressure might last for a long time. Questions 19-23 Complete the sentences below. Write ONLY ONE WORD from the passage for each answer. 19. Skepticism was always expected by the………………………….of tech industry. 20. The new aversion to initial offerings has its…………………. 21. Selling shares on a secondary market is considered a………………………….mechanism. 22. Workers’ compensation might be an………………………… 23. The public investors who failed to participate in the next big thing might be the ones wearing the……………. Questions 24-27 Do the following statements agree with the information in the IELTS reading text? TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 24. Private investors are bearing most of the risk. 25. Not many investors were willing to speak on the record. 26. The typical tech company hitting the markets in 1990s was 5 years old. 27. Marc Andreessen, the firm’s co-founder, expressed amazement with divergency in how investors treat public. Reading Passage 3 When you think about it, kissing is strange and a bit icky. You share saliva with someone, sometimes for a prolonged period of time. One kiss could pass on 80 million bacteria, not all of them good. Yet everyone surely remembers their first kiss, in all its embarrassing or delightful detail, and kissing continues to play a big role in new romances. At least, it does in some societies. People in western societies may assume that romantic kissing is a universal human behaviour, but a new analysis suggests that less than half of all cultures actually do it. Kissing is also extremely rare in the animal kingdom. So what’s really behind this odd behaviour? If it is useful, why don’t all animals do it – and all humans too? It turns out that the very fact that most animals don’t kiss helps explain why some do. According to a new study of kissing preferences, which looked at 168 cultures from around the world, only 46% of cultures kiss in the romantic sense.  Previous estimates had put the figure at 90%. The new study excluded parents kissing their children, and focused solely on romantic lip-on-lip action between couples. Many hunter-gatherer groups showed no evidence of kissing or desire to do so. Some even considered it revolting. The Mehinaku tribe in Brazil reportedly said it was “gross”. Given that hunter-gatherer groups are the closest modern humans get to living our ancestral lifestyle, our ancestors may not have been kissing either. The study overturns the belief that romantic kissing is a near-universal human behaviour, says lead author William Jankowiak of the University of Nevada in Las Vegas. Instead it seems to be a product of western societies, passed on from one generation to the next, he says. There is some historical evidence to back that up. Kissing as we do it today seems to be a fairly recent invention, says Rafael Wlodarski of the University of Oxford in the UK. He has trawled through records to find evidence of how kissing has changed. The oldest evidence of a kissing-type behaviour comes from Hindu Vedic Sanskrit texts from over 3,500 years ago. Kissing was described as inhaling each other’s soul. In contrast, Egyptian hieroglyphics picture people close to each other rather than pressing their lips together. So what is going on? Is kissing something we do naturally, but that some cultures have suppressed? Or is it something modern humans have invented? We can find some insight by looking at animals. Our closest relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, do kiss. Primatologist Frans de Waal of Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, has seen many instances of chimps kissing and hugging after conflict. For chimpanzees, kissing is a form of reconciliation. It is more common among males than females. In other words, it is not a romantic behaviour. Their cousins the bonobos kiss more often, and they often use tongues while doing so. That’s perhaps not surprising, because bonobos are highly sexual beings. When two humans meet, we might shake hands. Bonobos have sex: the so-called bonobo handshake. They also use sex for many other kinds of bonding. So their kisses are not particularly romantic, either. These two apes are exceptions. As far as we know, other animals do not kiss at all. They may nuzzle or touch their faces together, but even those that have lips don’t share saliva or purse and smack their lips together. They don’t need to. Take wild boars. Males produce a pungent smell that females find extremely attractive. The key chemical is a pheromone called androstenone that triggers the females’ desire to mate. From a female’s point of view this is a good thing, because males with the most androstonene are also the most fertile. Her sense of smell is so acute, she doesn’t need to get close enough to kiss the male. The same is true of many other mammals. For example, female hamsters emit a pheromone that gets males very excited. Mice follow similar chemical traces to help them find partners that are genetically different, minimising the risk of accidental incest. Animals often release these pheromones in their urine. “Their urine is much more pungent,” says Wlodarski. “If there’s urine present in the environment they can assess compatibility through that.” It’s not just mammals that have a great sense of smell. A male black widow spider can smell pheromones produced by a female that tell him if she has recently eaten. To minimise the risk of being eaten, he will only mate with her if she is not hungry. The point is, animals do not need to get close to each other to smell out a good potential mate. On the other hand, humans have an atrocious sense of smell, so we benefit from getting close. Smell isn’t the only cue we use to assess each other’s fitness, but studies have shown that it plays an important role in mate choice. A study published in 1995 showed that women, just like mice, prefer the smell of men who are genetically different from them. This makes sense, as mating with someone with different genes is likely to produce healthy offspring. Kissing is a great way to get close enough to sniff out your partner’s genes. In 2013, Wlodarski examined kissing preferences in detail. He asked several hundred people what was most important when kissing someone. How they smelled featured highly, and the importance of smell increased when women were most fertile. It turns out that men also make a version of the pheromone that female boars find attractive. It is present in male sweat, and when women are exposed to it their arousal levels increase slightly. Pheromones are a big part of how mammals chose a mate, says Wlodarski, and we share some of them. “We’ve inherited all of our biology from mammals, we’ve just added extra things through evolutionary time.” On that view, kissing is just a culturally acceptable way to get close enough to another person to detect their pheromones. In some cultures, this sniffing behaviour turned into physical lip contact. It’s hard to pinpoint when this happened, but both serve the same purpose, says Wlodarski. So if you want to find a perfect match, you could forego kissing and start smelling people instead. You’ll find just as good a partner, and you won’t get half as many germs. Be prepared for some funny looks, though. Questions 28-35 Do the following statements agree with the information in the IELTS reading text? In boxes 28-32 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 28. Both Easter and Wester societies presume that kissing is essential for any part of the world. 29. Our ancestors were not likely to kiss. 30. Chimpanzees and bonbons kiss not for the romance. 31. There are other animal, rather than apes, that kiss. 32. Scent might be important in choosing your partner. 33. Wlodarski surveyed several men to figure out the importance of kissing. 34. Majority of the microorganisms passed by kissing are beneficial for the body. 35. According to a Hindu text, kissing is a means to exchange souls. Questions 36-39 Complete the sentences below. Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. 36. According to the Mehinaku tribe, kissing is………………………. 37. Human tradition is to……………………when they meet. 38. A male black widow will mate with the female if only she is………………………. 39. Humans benefit from getting close due to the fact that we have an………………….of smell. Question 40 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. 40. Passage 3 can be described as: A Strictly scientific text B Historical article C Article from a magazine D Dystopian sketch Answers 1. false 2. true 3. not given 4. true 5. true 6. B 7. A 8. B 9. weird 10. vibrant 11. polar-opposite 12. imagery hovering 13. adamant 14. disorder 15. A 16. A 17. B 18. C 19. luminaries 20. downside 21. novel 22. issue 23. frown 24. true 25. true 26. not given 27. false 28. false 29. true 30. true 31. false 32. true 33. not given 34. not given 35. true 36. gross 37. shake hands 38. not hungry 39. atrocious sense 40. C

Reading Passage One A The Lumiere Brothers opened their Cinematographe, at 14 Boulevard des Capucines in Paris, to 100 paying customers over 100 years ago, on December 8, 1 895. Before the eyes of the stunned, thrilled audience, photographs came to life and moved across a flat screen. B So ordinary and routine has this become to us that it takes a determined leap of the imagination to grasp the impact of those first moving images. But it is worth trying, for to understand the initial shock of those images is to understand the extraordinary power and magic of cinema, the unique, hypnotic quality that has made film the most dynamic, effective art form of the 20th century. C One of the Lumiere Brothers’ earliest films was a 30-second piece which showed a section of a railway platform flooded with sunshine. A train appears and heads straight for the camera. And that is all that happens. Yet the Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky, one of the greatest of all film artists, described the film as a ‘work of genius’. ‘As the train approached,’ wrote Tarkovsky, panic started in the theatre: people jumped and ran away. That was the moment when cinema was born. The frightened audience could not accept that they were watching a mere picture. Pictures were still, only reality moved; this must, therefore, be reality. In confusion, they feared that a real train was about to crush them.’ D Early cinema audiences often experienced the same confusion. In time, the idea of film became familiar, the magic was accepted — but it never stopped being magic. Film has never lost its unique power to embrace its audiences and transport them to a different world. For Tarkovsky, the key to that magic was the way in which cinema created a dynamic image of the real flow of events. A still picture could only imply the existence of time, while time in a novel passed at the whim of the reader but in cinema, the real, objective flow of time was captured. E One effect of this realism was to educate the world about itself. For cinema makes the world smaller. Long before people travelled to America or anywhere else, they knew what other places looked like; they knew how other people worked and lived. Overwhelmingly, the lives recorded – at least in film fiction – have been American. From the earliest days of the industry, Hollywood has dominated the world film market. American imagery – the cars, the cities, the cowboys – became the primary imagery of film. Film carried American life and values around the globe. F And, thanks to film, future generations will know the 20th century more intimately than any other period. We can only imagine what life was like in the 14th century or in classical Greece. But the life of the modern world has been recorded on film in massive, encyclopedic detail. We shall be known better than any preceding generations. G The ‘star’ was another natural consequence of cinema. The cinema star was effectively born in 1910. Film personalities have such an immediate presence that, inevitably, they become super-real. Because we watch them so closely and because everybody in the world seems to bow who they are, they appear more real to us than we do ourselves. The star as magnified human self is one of cinema’s most strange and enduring legacies. H Cinema has also given a new lease of life to the idea of the story. When the Lumiere Brothers and other pioneers began showing off this new invention, it was by no means obvious how it would be used. All that mattered at first was the wonder of movement. Indeed, some said that, once this novelty had worn off, cinema would fade away. It was no more than a passing gimmick, a fairground attraction. I Cinema might, for example, have become primarily a documentary form. Or it might have developed like television as a strange noisy transfer of music, information and narrative. But what happened was that it became, overwhelmingly, a medium for telling stories. Originally these were conceived as short stories – early producers doubted the ability of audiences to concentrate for more than the length of a re el. Then, in 1912, an Italian 2-hour film was hugely successful, and Hollywood settled upon the novel-length narrative that remains the dominant cinematic convention of today. J And it has all happened so quickly. Almost unbelievably, it is a mere 100 years since that train arrived and the audience screamed and fled, convinced by the dangerous reality of what they saw, and, perhaps, suddenly aware that the world could never be the same again – that, maybe, it could be better, brighter, more astonishing, more real than reality. Questions 1-5 Reading Passage 1 has ten paragraphs, A-J. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct fetter, A-J. in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet. 1 the location of the first cinema 2 how cinema came to focus on stories 3 the speed with which cinema has changed 4 how cinema teaches us about other cultures 5 the attraction of actors in films Questions 6-9 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 1? In boxes 6-9 on your answer sheet, write: YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 6 It is important to understand how the first audiences reacted to the cinema. 7 The Lumiere Brothers’ film about the train was one of the greatest films ever made. 8 Cinema presents a biased view of other countries. 9 Storylines were important in very early cinema. Questions 10-13 Choose the correct letter. A, B, Cor D. Write the correct letter in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet. 10 The writer refers to the film of the train in order to demonstrate A the simplicity of early films B the impact of early films C how short early films were D how imaginative early films were 11 In Tarkovsky’s opinion, the attraction of the cinema is that it A aims to impress its audience B tells stories better than books C illustrates the passing of time D describes familiar events 12 When cinema first began, people thought that A it would always tell stories B it should be used in fairgrounds C its audiences were unappreciative D its future was uncertain 13 What is the best title for this passage? A The rise of the cinema star B Cinema and novels compared C The domination of Hollywood D The power of the big screen MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES UNDER ADVERSE CONDITIONS THE CHALLENGE It is a great deal easier to motivate employees in a growing organisation than a declining one. When organisations are expanding and adding personnel, promotional opportunities, pay rises, and the excitement of being associated with a dynamic organisation create Slings of optimism. Management is able to use the growth to entice and encourage employees. When an organisation is shrinking, the best and most mobile workers are prone to leave voluntarily. Unfortunately, they are the ones the organisation can least afford to lose- those with the highest skills and experience. The minor employees remain because their job options are limited. Morale also suffers during decline. People fear they may be the next to be made redundant. Productivity often suffers, as employees spend their time sharing rumours and providing one another with moral support rather than focusing on their jobs. For those whose jobs are secure, pay increases are rarely possible. Pay cuts, unheard of during times of growth, may even be imposed. The challenge to management is how to motivate employees under such retrenchment conditions. The ways of meeting this challenge can be broadly divided into six Key Points, which are outlined below. KEY POINT ONE There is an abundance of evidence to support the motivational benefits that result from carefully matching people to jobs. For example, if the job is running a small business or an autonomous unit within a larger business, high achievers should be sought. However, if the job to be filled is a managerial post in a large bureaucratic organisation, a candidate who has a high need for power and a low need for affiliation should be selected. Accordingly, high achievers should not be put into jobs that are inconsistent with their needs. High achievers will do best when the job provides moderately challenging goals and where there is independence and feedback. However, it should be remembered that not everybody is motivated by jobs that are high in independence, variety and responsibility. KEY POINT TWO The literature on goal-setting theory suggests that managers should ensure that all employees have specific goals and receive comments on how well they are doing in those goals. For those with high achievement needs, typically a minority in any organisation, the existence of external goals is less important because high achievers are already internally motivated. The next factor to be determined is whether the goals should be assigned by a manager or collectively set in conjunction with the employees. The answer to that depends on perceptions the culture, however, goals should be assigned. If participation and the culture are incongruous, employees are likely to perceive the participation process as manipulative and be negatively affected by it. KEY POINT THREE Regardless of whether goals are achievable or well within management’s perceptions of the employee’s ability, if employees see them as unachievable they will reduce their effort. Managers must be sure, therefore, that employees feel confident that their efforts can lead to performance goals. For managers, this means that employees must have the capability of doing the job and must regard the appraisal process as valid. KEY POINT FOUR Since employees have different needs, what acts as a reinforcement for one may not for another. Managers could use their knowledge of each employee to personalise the rewards over which they have control. Some of the more obvious rewards that managers allocate include pay, promotions, autonomy, job scope and depth, and the opportunity to participate in goal-setting and decision-making. KEY POINT FIVE Managers need to make rewards contingent on performance. To reward factors other than performance will only reinforce those other factors. Key rewards such as pay increases and promotions or advancements should be allocated for the attainment of the employee’s specific goals. Consistent with maximising the impact of rewards, managers should look for ways to increase their visibility. Eliminating the secrecy surrounding pay by openly communicating everyone’s remuneration, publicising performance bonuses and allocating annual salary increases in a lump sum rather than spreading them out over an entire year are examples of actions that will make rewards more visible and potentially more motivating. KEY POINT SIX The way rewards are distributed should be transparent so that employees perceive that rewards or outcomes are equitable and equal to the inputs given. On a simplistic level, experience, abilities, effort and other obvious inputs should explain differences in pay, responsibility and other obvious outcomes. The problem, however, is complicated by the existence of dozens of inputs and outcomes and by the fact that employee groups place different degrees of importance on them. For instance, a study comparing clerical and production workers identified nearly twenty inputs and outcomes. The clerical workers considered factors such as quality of work performed and job knowledge near the top of their list, but these were at the bottom of the production workers’ list. Similarly, production workers thought that the most important inputs were intelligence and personal involvement with task accomplishment, two factors that were quite low in the importance ratings of the clerks. There were also important, though less dramatic, differences on the outcome side. For example, production workers rated advancement very highly, whereas clerical workers rated advancement in the lower third of their list. Such findings suggest that one person’s equity is another’s inequity, so an ideal should probably weigh different inputs and outcomes according to employee group. Questions 14-18 Reading Passage 2 contains six Key Points. Choose the correct heading for Key Points TWO to SIX .from the list of headings below. Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet. List of Headings i Ensure the reward system is fair ii Match rewards lo individuals iii Ensure targets are realistic iv Link rewards to achievement v Encourage managers to take more responsibility vi Recognise changes in employees’ performance over time vii Establish targets and give feedback viii Ensure employees are suited to their jobs 14 Key Point Two 15 Key Point Three 16 Key Point Four 17 Key Point Five 18 Key Point Six Questions 19-24 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 2? In boxes 19-24 on your answer sheet, write: YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 19 A shrinking organisation lends to lose its less skilled employees rather than its more skilled employees. 20 It is easier to manage a small business than a large business. 21 High achievers are well suited to team work. 22 Some employees can feel manipulated when asked to participate in goal-setting. 23 The staff appraisal process should be designed by employees. 24 Employees’ earnings should be disclosed to everyone within the organisation. Questions 25-27 Look at the follow groups of worker (Question25-27) and the list of descriptions below. Match each group with the correct description, A -E. Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 25-27 on your answer sheet. 25 high achievers 26 clerical workers 27 production workers List of Descriptions A They judge promotion to be important B They have less need of external goats C They think that the quality of their work is important D They resist goals which are imposed E They have limited job options The Search for the Anti-aging Pill As researchers on aging noted recently, no treatment on the market today has been proved to slow human aging- the build-up of molecular and cellular damage that increases vulnerability to infirmity as we grow older. But one intervention, consumption of a low-calorie yet nutritionally balanced diet, works incredibly well in a broad range of animals, increasing longevity and prolonging good health. Those findings suggest that caloric restriction could delay aging and increase longevity in humans, too. Unfortunately, for maximum benefit, people would probably have to reduce their caloric intake by roughly thirty per cent, equivalent to dropping from 2,500 calories a day to 1,750. Few mortals could stick to that harsh a regimen, especially for years on end. But what if someone could create a pill that mimicked the physiological effects of eating less without actually forcing people to eat less? Could such a ‘caloric-restriction mimetic’, as we call it, enable people to stay healthy longer, postponing age-related disorders (such as diabetes, arteriosclerosis, heart disease and cancer) until very late in life? Scientists first posed this question in the mid-1990s, after researchers came upon a chemical agent that in rodents seemed to reproduce many of caloric restriction’s benefits. No compound that would safely achieve the same feat in people has been found yet, but the search has been informative and has fanned hope that caloric-restriction (CR) mimetics can indeed be developed eventually. The benefits of caloric restriction The hunt for CR mimetics grew out of a desire to better understand caloric restriction’s many effects on the body. Scientists first recognized the value of the practice more than 60 years ago, when they found that rats fed a low-calorie diet lived longer on average than free-feeding rats and also had a reduced incidence of conditions that become increasingly common in old age. What is more, some of the treated animals survived longer than the oldest-living animals in the control group, which means that the maximum lifespan (the oldest attainable age), not merely the normal lifespan, increased. Various interventions, such as infection-fighting drugs, can increase a population’s average survival time, but only approaches that slow the body’s rate of aging will increase the maximum lifespan. The rat findings have been replicated many times and extended to creatures ranging from yeast to fruit flies, worms, fish, spiders, mice and hamsters. Until fairly recently, the studies were limited to short-lived creatures genetically distant from humans. But caloric-restriction projects underway in two species more closely related to humans- rhesus and squirrel monkeys- have scientists optimistic that CR mimetics could help people. The monkey projects demonstrate that, compared with control animals that eat normally, caloric-restricted monkeys have lower body temperatures and levels of the pancreatic hormone insulin, and they retain more youthful levels of certain hormones that tend to fall with age. The caloric-restricted animals also look better on indicators of risk for age-related diseases. For example, they have lower blood pressure and triglyceride levels (signifying a decreased likelihood of heart disease), and they have more normal blood glucose levels (pointing to a reduced risk for diabetes, which is marked by unusually high blood glucose levels). Further, it has recently been shown that rhesus monkeys kept on caloric-restricted diets for an extended time (nearly 15 years) have less chronic disease. They and the other monkeys must be followed still longer, however, to know whether low-calorie intake can increase both average and maximum lifespans in monkeys. Unlike the multitude of elixirs being touted as the latest anti-aging cure, CR mimetics would alter fundamental processes that underlie aging. We aim to develop compounds that fool cells into activating maintenance and repair. How a prototype caloric-restriction mimetic works The best-studied candidate for a caloric-restriction mimetic, 2DG (2-deoxy-D-glucose), works by interfering with the way cells process glucose, it has proved toxic at some doses in animals and so cannot be used in humans. But it has demonstrated that chemicals can replicate the effects of caloric restriction; the trick is finding the right one. Cells use the glucose from food to generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the molecule that powers many activities in the body. By limiting food intake, caloric restriction minimizes the amount of glucose entering cells and decreases ATP generation. When 2DG is administered to animals that eat normally, glucose reaches cells in abundance but the drug prevents most of it from being processed and thus reduces ATP synthesis. Researchers have proposed several explanations for why interruption of glucose processing and ATP production might retard aging. One possibility relates to the ATP-making machinery’s emission of free radicals, which are thought to contribute to aging and to such age-related diseases as cancer by damaging cells. Reduced operation of the machinery should limit their production and thereby constrain the damage. Another hypothesis suggests that decreased processing of glucose could indicate to cells that food is scarce (even if it isn’t) and induce them to shift into an anti-aging mode that emphasizes preservation of the organism over such ‘luxuries’ as growth and reproduction. Questions 28-32 Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3? In boxes 28-32 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 28 Studies show drugs available today can delay the process of growing old. 29 There is scientific evidence that eating fewer calories may extend human life. 30 Not many people are likely to find a caloric-restricted diet attractive. 31 Diet-related diseases are common in older people. 32 In experiments, rats who ate what they wanted led shorter lives than rats on a low-calorie diet. Questions 33-37 Classify the following descriptions as relating to A caloric-restricted monkeys B control monkeys C neither caloric-restricted monkeys nor control monkeys 33 Monkeys were less likely to become diabetic. 34 Monkeys experienced more chronic disease. 35 Monkeys have been shown to experience a longer than average life span. 36 Monkeys enjoyed a reduced chance of heart disease. 37 Monkeys produced greater quantities of insulin. Questions 38-40 Complete the flowchart below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Answers 1. A 2. I 3. J 4. E 5. G 6. yes 7. not given 8. not given 9. no 10. B 11. C 12. D 13. D 14. 7 15. 3 16. 2 17. 4 18. 1 19. no 20. not given 21. no 22. yes 23. not given 24. yes 25. B 26. C 27. A 28. no 29. yes 30. yes 31. not given 32. yes 33. A 34. B 35. C 36. A 37. B 38. glucose 39. free radicals 40. preservation

GLASS – Capturing The Dance of Light A Glass, in one form or another, has long been in noble service to humans. As one of the most widely used of manufactured materials, and certainly the most versatile, it can be as imposing as a telescope mirror the width of a tennis court or as small and simple as a marble rolling across dirt. The uses of this adaptable material have been broadened dramatically by new technologies glass fibre optics — more than eight million miles — carrying telephone and television signals across nations, glass ceramics serving as the nose cones of missiles and as crowns for teeth; tiny glass beads taking radiation doses inside the body to specific organs, even a new type of glass fashioned of nuclear waste in order to dispose of that unwanted material. B On the horizon are optical computers. These could store programs and process information by means of light – pulses from tiny lasers – rather than electrons and the pulses would travel over glass fibres, not copper wire. These machines could function hundreds of times faster than today’s electronic computers and hold vastly more information. Today fibre optics viruses. A new generation of optical instruments is emerging that can provide detailed imaging of the inner workings of cells. It is the surge in fibre optic use and in liquid crystal displays that has set the U.S. glass industry (a 16 billion dollar business employing some 150,000 workers) to building new plants to meet demand. C But it is not only in technology and commerce that glass has widened its horizons. The use of glass as art, a tradition spins back at least to Roman times, is also booming. Nearly everywhere, it seems, men and women are blowing glass and creating works of art. “I didn’t sell a piece of glass until 1975”, Dale Chihuly said, smiling, for in the 18 years since the end of the dry spell, he has become one of the most financially successful artists of the 20th century. He now has a new commission – a glass sculpture for the headquarters building of a pizza company – for which his fee is half a million dollars. D But not all the glass technology that touches our lives is ultra-modern. Consider the simple light bulb; at the turn of the century most light bulbs were hand blown, and the cost of one was equivalent to half a day’s pay for the average worker. In effect, the invention of the ribbon machine by Corning in the 1920s lighted a nation. The price of a bulb plunged. Small wonder that the machine has been called one of the great mechanical achievements of all time. Yet it is very simple: a narrow ribbon of molten glass travels over a moving belt of steel in which there are holes. The glass sags through the holes and into waiting moulds. Puffs of compressed air then shape the glass. In this way, the envelope of a light bulb is made by a single machine at the rate of 66,000 an hour, as compared with 1,200 a day produced by a team of four glassblowers. E The secret of the versatility of glass lies in its interior structure. Although it is rigid, and thus like a solid, the atoms are arranged in a random disordered fashion, characteristic of a liquid. In the melting process, the atoms in the raw materials are disturbed from their normal position in the molecular structure; before they can find their way back to crystalline arrangements the glass cools. This looseness in molecular structure gives the material what engineers call tremendous “formability” which allows technicians to tailor glass to whatever they need. F Today, scientists continue to experiment with new glass mixtures and building designers test their imaginations with applications of special types of glass. A London architect, Mike Davies, sees even more dramatic buildings using molecular chemistry. “Glass is the great building material of the future, the dynamic skin,’ he said. “Think of glass that has been treated to react to electric currents going through it, glass that will change from clear to opaque at the push of a button, that gives you instant curtains. Think of how the tall buildings in New York could perform a symphony of colours as the glass in them is made to change colours instantly.” Glass as instant curtains is available now, but the cost is exorbitant. As for the glass changing colours instantly, that may come true. Mike Davies’s vision may indeed be on the way to fulfilment. Questions 1-5 Reading Passage 1 has six paragraphs (A-F). Choose the most suitable heading/or each paragraph from the list of headings below. Write the appropriate numbers (i-x) in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet. Paragraph A has been done for you as an example. NB There are more headings than paragraphs so you will not use all of them. You may use any heading more at once. List of Headings i. Growth in the market for glass crafts ii. Computers and their dependence on glass iii. What makes glass so adaptable iv. Historical development of glass v. Scientists’ dreams cost millions vi. Architectural experiments with glass vii. Glass art galleries flourish viii. Exciting innovations in fibre optics ix. A former glass technology x. Everyday uses of glass 1 Paragraph B 2 Paragraph C 3 Paragraph D 4 Paragraph E 5 Paragraph F Questions 6-8 The diagram below shows the principle of Corning’s ribbon machine. Label the diagram by selecting NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the Reading Passage to fill each numbered space. Write your answers in boxes 6-8 on your answer sheet. Questions 9-13 Look at the list below of the uses of glass. According to the passage, state whether these uses exist today, will exist in the future or are not mentioned by the writer. In boxes 9-13 write A if the uses exist today B if the uses will exist in the future C if the uses are not mentioned by the writer 9 dental fittings 10 optical computers 11 sculptures 12 fashions 13 curtains Why some women cross the finish line ahead of men A Women who apply for jobs in middle or senior management have a higher success rate than men, according to an employment survey. But of course far fewer of them apply for these positions. The study, by recruitment consultants NB Selection, shows that while one in six men who appear on interview shortlists get jobs, the figure rises to one in four for women. B The study concentrated on applications for management positions in the $45,000 to $110,000 salary range and found that women are more successful than men in both the private and public sectors Dr Elisabeth Marx from London-based NB Selection described the findings as encouraging for women, in that they send a positive message to them to apply for interesting management positions. But she added, “We should not lose sight of the fact that significantly fewer women apply for senior positions in comparison with men.” C Reasons for higher success rates among women are difficult to isolate. One explanation suggested is that if a woman candidate manages to get on a shortlist, then she has probably already proved herself to be an exceptional candidate. Dr Marx said that when women apply for positions they tend to be better qualified than their male counterparts but are more selective and conservative in their job search. Women tend to research thoroughly before applying for positions or attending interviews. Men, on the other hand, seem to rely on their ability to sell themselves and to convince employers that any shortcomings they have will not prevent them from doing a good job. D Managerial and executive progress made by women is confirmed by the annual survey of boards of directors carried out by Korn/ Ferry/ Carre/ Orban International. This year the survey shows a doubling of the number of women serving as non-executive directors compared with the previous year. However, progress remains painfully slow and there were still only 18 posts filled by women out of a total of 354 nonexecutive positions surveyed. Hilary Sears, a partner with Korn/ Ferry, said, “Women have raised the level of grades we are employed in but we have still not broken through barriers to the top.” E In Europe a recent feature of corporate life in the recession has been the delayering of management structures. Sears said that this has halted progress for women in as much as de-layering has taken place either where women are working or in layers they aspire to. Sears also noted a positive trend from the recession, which has been the growing number of women who have started up on their own. F In business as a whole, there are a number of factors encouraging the prospect of greater equality in the workforce. Demographic trends suggest that the number of women going into employment is steadily increasing. In addition a far greater number of women are now passing through higher education, making them better qualified to move into management positions. G Organisations such as the European Women’s Management Development Network provide a range of opportunities for women to enhance their skills and contacts. Through a series of both pan-European and national workshops and conferences the barriers to women in employment are being broken down. However, Ariane Berthoin Antal, director of the International Institute for Organisational Change of Archamps in France, said that there is only anecdotal evidence of changes in recruitment patterns. And she said, “It’s still so hard for women to even get on to shortlists -there are so many hurdles and barriers.” Antal agreed that there have been some positive signs but said “Until there is a belief among employers, until they value the difference, nothing will change.” Questions 14-19 Reading Passage 2 has 7 paragraphs (A-G). State which paragraph discusses each of the points below. Write the appropriate letter (A-G) in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet. Example: The salary range studied in the NB Selection survey. Answer B 14 The drawbacks of current company restructuring patterns. 15 Associations that provide support for professional women. 16 The success rate of female job applicants for management positions. 17 Male and female approaches to job applications. 18 Reasons why more women are being employed in the business sector. 19 The improvement in female numbers on company management structures. Questions 20-23 The author makes reference to three consultants in the Reading Passage. Which of the list of points below do these consultants make? In boxes 20-23 write M if the point is made by Dr Marx S if the point is made by Hilary Sears A if the point is made by Ariane Berthoin Antal 20 Selection procedures do not favour women. 21 The number of female-run businesses is increasing. 22 Male applicants exceed female applicants for top posts. 23 Women hold higher positions now than they used to. Questions 24-27 Using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS answer the following questions. Write your answers in boxes 24-27 on your answer sheet. 24 What change has there been in the number of women in top management positions detailed in the annual survey? 25 What aspect of company structuring has disadvantaged women? 26 What information tells us that more women are working nowadays? 27 Which group of people should change their attitude to recruitment? Population viability analysis Part A To make political decisions about the extent and type of forestry in a region it is important to understand the consequences of those decisions. One tool for assessing the impact of forestry on the ecosystem is population viability analysis (PVA). This is a tool for predicting the probability that a species will become extinct in a particular region over a specific period. It has been successfully used in the United States to provide input into resource exploitation decisions and assist wildlife managers and there is now enormous potential for using population viability to assist wildlife management in Australia’s forests. A species becomes extinct when the last individual dies. This observation is a useful starting point for any discussion of extinction as it highlights the role of luck and chance in the extinction process. To make a prediction about extinction we need to understand the processes that can contribute to it and these fall into four broad categories which are discussed below. Part B A Early attempts to predict population viability were based on demographic uncertainty Whether an individual survives from one year to the next will largely be a matter of chance. Some pairs may produce several young in a single year while others may produce none in that same year. Small populations will fluctuate enormously because of the random nature of birth and death and these chance fluctuations can cause species extinctions even if, on average, the population size should increase. Taking only this uncertainty of ability to reproduce into account, extinction is unlikely if the number of individuals in a population is above about 50 and the population is growing. B Small populations cannot avoid a certain amount of inbreeding. This is particularly true if there is a very small number of one sex. For example, if there are only 20 individuals of a species and only one is a male, all future individuals in the species must be descended from that one male. For most animal species such individuals are less likely to survive and reproduce. Inbreeding increases the chance of extinction. C Variation within a species is the raw material upon which natural selection acts. Without genetic variability a species lacks the capacity to evolve and cannot adapt to changes in its environment or to new predators and new diseases. The loss of genetic diversity associated with reductions in population size will contribute to the likelihood of extinction. D Recent research has shown that other factors need to be considered. Australia’s environment fluctuates enormously from year to year. These fluctuations add yet another degree of uncertainty to the survival of many species. Catastrophes such as fire, flood, drought or epidemic may reduce population sizes to a small fraction of their average level. When allowance is made for these two additional elements of uncertainty the population size necessary to be confident of persistence for a few hundred years may increase to several thousand. Part C Beside these processes we need to bear in mind the distribution of a population. A species that occurs in five isolated places each containing 20 individuals will not have the same probability of extinction as a species with a single population of 100 individuals in a single locality. Where logging occurs (that is, the cutting down of forests for timber) forest dependent creatures in that area will be forced to leave. Ground-dwelling herbivores may return within a decade. However, arboreal marsupials (that is animals which live in trees) may not recover to pre-logging densities for over a century. As more forests are logged, animal population sizes will be reduced further. Regardless of the theory or model that we choose, a reduction in population size decreases the genetic diversity of a population and increases the probability of extinction because of any or all of the processes listed above. It is therefore a scientific fact that increasing the area that is loaded in any region will increase the probability that forest-dependent animals will become extinct. Questions 28-31 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Part A of Reading Passage 3? In boxes 28-31 on your answer sheet write YES if the statement agrees with the writer NO if the statement contradicts the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 28 Scientists are interested in the effect of forestry on native animals. 29 PVA has been used in Australia for many years. 30 A species is said to be extinct when only one individual exists. 31 Extinction is a naturally occurring phenomenon. Questions 32-35 These questions are based on Part B of Reading Passage 3. In paragraphs A to D the author describes four processes which may contribute to the extinction of a species. Match the list of processes (i-vi) to the paragraphs. Write the appropriate number (i-vi) in boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet. NB There are more processes than paragraphs so you will not use all of them. 32 Paragraph A 33 Paragraph B 34 Paragraph C 35 Paragraph D Processes i. Loss of ability to adapt ii. Natural disasters iii. An imbalance of the sexes iv. Human disasters v. Evolution vi. The haphazard nature of reproduction Questions 36-39 Based on your reading of Part C, complete the sentences below with words taken from the passage. Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 36-38 on your answer sheet. While the population of a species may be on the increase, there is always a chance that small isolated groups (36)………………………. Survival of a species depends on a balance between the size of a population and its (37)……………………. The likelihood that animals which live in forests will become extinct is increased when (38)…………………… After logging herbivores that reside on ground find it easier to return as compared to (39)……………… Question 40 Choose the appropriate letter A-D and write it in box 39 on your answer sheet. 40 An alternative heading for the passage could be: A The protection of native flora and fauna B Influential factors in assessing survival probability C An economic rationale for the logging of forests D Preventive measures for the extinction of a species Answers 1. viii 2. i 3. ix 4. iii 5. vi 6. molten glass 7. steel belt 8. (lightbulb) moulds 9. A 10. B 11. A 12. C 13. A 14. E 15. G 16. A 17. C 18. F 19. D 20. A 21. S 22. M 23. S 24. double 25. de-layering 26. demographic trends 27. employers 28. not given 29. no 30. no 31. not given 32. vi 33. iii 34. i 35. ii 36. may not survive 37. locality/ distribution 38. logging occurs 39. arboreal marsupials 40. B

Glaciers A Besides the earth’s oceans, glacier ice is the largest source of water on earth. A glacier is a massive stream or sheet of ice that moves underneath itself under the influence of gravity. Some glaciers travel down mountains or valleys, while others spread across a large expanse of land. Heavily glaciated regions such as Greenland and Antarctica are called continental glaciers. These two ice sheets encompass more than 95 percent of the earth’s glacial ice. The Greenland ice sheet is almost 10,000 feet thick in some areas, and the weight of this glacier is so heavy that much of the region has been depressed below sea level. Smaller glaciers that occur at higher elevations are called alpine or valley glaciers. Another way of classifying glaciers is in terms of their internal temperature. In temperate glaciers, the ice within the glacier is near its melting point. Polar glaciers, in contrast, always maintain temperatures far below melting. B The majority of the earth’s glaciers are located near the poles, though glaciers exist on all continents, including Africa and Oceania. The reason glaciers are generally formed in high alpine regions is that they require cold temperatures throughout the year. In these areas where there is little opportunity for summer ablation (loss of mass), snow changes to compacted fin and then crystallized ice. During periods in which melting and evaporation exceed the amount of snowfall, glaciers will retreat rather than progress. While glaciers rely heavily on snowfall, other climactic conditions including freezing rain, avalanches, and wind, contribute to their growth. One year of below average precipitation can stunt the growth of a glacier tremendously. With the rare exception of surging glaciers, a common glacier flows about 10 inches per day in the summer and 5 inches per day in the winter. The fastest glacial surge on record occurred in 1953, when the Kutiah Glacier in Pakistan grew more than 12 kilometers in three months. C The weight and pressure of ice accumulation causes glacier movement. Glaciers move out from under themselves, via plastic deformation and basal slippage. First, the internal flow of ice crystals begins to spread outward and downward from the thickened snow pack also known as the zone of accumulation. Next, the ice along the ground surface begins to slip in the same direction. Seasonal thawing at the base of the glacier helps to facilitate this slippage. The middle of a glacier moves faster than the sides and bottom because there is no rock to cause friction. The upper part of a glacier rides on the ice below. As a glacier moves it carves out a U-shaped valley similar to a riverbed, but with much steeper walls and a flatter bottom. D Besides the extraordinary rivers of ice, glacial erosion creates other unique physical features in the landscape such as horns, fjords, hanging valleys, and cirques. Most of these landforms do not become visible until after a glacier has receded. Many are created by moraines, which occur at the sides and front of a glacier. Moraines are formed when material is picked up along the way and deposited in a new location. When many alpine glaciers occur on the same mountain, these moraines can create a horn. The Matterhorn, in the Swiss Alps, is one of the most famous horns. Fjords, which are very common in Norway, are coastal valleys that fill with ocean water during a glacial retreat. Hanging valleys occur when two or more glacial valleys intersect at varying elevations. It is common for waterfalls to connect the higher and lower hanging valleys, such as in Yosemite National Park. A cirque is a large bowl-shaped valley that forms at the front of a glacier. Cirques often have a lip on their down slope that is deep enough to hold small lakes when the ice melts away. E Glacier movement and shape shifting typically occur over hundreds of years. While presently about 10 percent of the earth’s land is covered with glaciers, it is believed that during the last Ice Age glaciers covered approximately 32 percent of the earth’s surface. In the past century, most glaciers have been retreating rather than flowing forward. It is unknown whether this glacial activity is due to human impact or natural causes, but by studying glacier movement, and comparing climate and agricultural profiles over hundreds of years, glaciologists can begin to understand environmental issues such as global warming. Questions 1-5 Reading Passage 1 has five paragraphs, A-E. Choose the most suitable heading for each para-graph from the list of headings below. Write the appropriate numbers (i-viii) on your Answer Sheet. There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all. List of Headings i Glacial Continents ii Formation and Growth of Glaciers iii Glacial Movement iv Glaciers in the Last Ice Age v Glaciers Through the Years vi Types of Glaciers vii Glacial Effects on Landscape viii Glaciers in National Parks 1 Paragraph A 2 Paragraph B 3 Paragraph C 4 Paragraph D 5 Paragraph E Questions 6-10 Do the following statements agree with the information in the passage? In boxes 6-10 on your Answer Sheet, write TRUE if the statement is true according to the passage. FALSE if the statement contradicts the passage. NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the passage. 6 Glaciers exist only near the north and south poles. 7 Glaciers are formed by a combination of snow and other weather conditions. 8 Glaciers normally move at a rate of about 5 to 10 inches a day. 9 All parts of the glacier move at the same speed. 10 During the last Ice Age, average temperatures were much lower than they were during previous Ice Ages. Questions 11-15 Match each definition below with the term it defines. Write the letter of the term, A-H, on your Answer Sheet. There are more terms than definitions, so you will not use them all. 11 a glacier formed on a mountain 12 a glacier with temperatures well below freezing 13 a glacier that moves very quickly 14 a glacial valley formed near the ocean 15 a glacial valley that looks like a bowl Terms A fjord B alpine glacier C horn D polar glacier E temperate glacier F hanging valley G cirque H surging glacier Irish Potato Famine A In the ten years following the Irish potato famine of 1845, over 750,000 Irish people died, including many of those who attempted to immigrate to countries such as the United States and Canada. Prior to the potato blight, one of the main concerns in Ireland was overpopulation. In the early 1500s, the country’s population was estimated at less than three million, but by 1840 this number had nearly tripled. The bountiful potato crop, which contains almost all of the nutrients that a person needs for survival, was largely to blame for the population growth. However, within five years of the failed crop of 1845, the population of Ireland was reduced by a quarter. A number of factors contributed to the plummet of the Irish population, namely the Irish dependency on the potato crop, the British tenure system, and the inadequate relief efforts of the English. B It is not known exactly how or when the potato was first introduced to Europe; however, the general assumption is that it arrived on a Spanish ship sometime in the 1600s. For more than one hundred years, Europeans believed that potatoes belonged to a botanical family of a poisonous breed. It was not until Marie Antoinette wore potato blossoms in her hair in the mid-eighteenth century that potatoes became a novelty. By the late 1700s, the dietary value of the potato had been discovered, and the monarchs of Europe ordered the vegetable to be widely planted. C By 1800, the vast majority of the Irish population had become dependent on the potato as its primary staple. It wasn’t uncommon for an Irish potato farmer to consume more than six pounds of potatoes a day. Families stored potatoes for the winter and even fed potatoes to their livestock. Because of this dependency, the unexpected potato blight of 1845 devastated the Irish. Investigators at first suggested that the blight was caused by static energy, smoke from railroad trains, or vapors from underground volcanoes; however, the root cause was later discovered as an airborne fungus that traveled from Mexico. Not only did the disease destroy the potato crops, it also infected all of the potatoes in storage at the time. Their families were dying from famine, but weakened farmers had retained little of their agricultural skills to harvest other crops. Those who did manage to grow things such as oats, wheat, and barley relied on earnings from these exported crops to keep their rented homes. D While the potato blight generated mass starvation among the Irish, the people were held captive to their poverty by the British tenure system. Following the Napoleonic Wars of 1815, the English had turned their focus to their colonial land holdings. British landowners realized that the best way to profit from these holdings was to extract the resources and exports and charge expensive rents and taxes for people to live on the land. Under the tenure system, Protestant landlords owned 95 percent of the Irish land, which was divided up into five-acre plots for the people to live and farm on. As the population of Ireland grew, however, the plots were continuously subdivided into smaller parcels. Living conditions declined dramatically, and families were forced to move to less fertile land where almost nothing but the potato would grow. E During this same period of colonization, the Penal Laws were also instituted as a means of weakening the Irish spirit. Under the Penal Laws, Irish peasants were denied basic human rights, such as the right to speak their own native language, seek certain kinds of employment, practice their faith, receive education, and own land. Despite the famine that was devastating Ireland, the landlords had little compassion or sympathy for tenants unable to pay their rent. Approximately 500,000 Irish tenants were evicted by their landlords between 1845 and 1847. Many of these people also had their homes burned down and were put in jail for overdue rent. F The majority of the British officials in the 1840s adopted the laissez-faire philosophy, which supported a policy of nonintervention in the Irish plight. Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel was an exception. He showed compassion toward the Irish by making a move to repeal the Corn Laws, which had been put in place to protect British grain producers from the competition of foreign markets. For this hasty decision, Peel quickly lost the support of the British people and was forced to resign. The new Prime Minister, Lord John Russell, allowed assistant Charles Trevelyan to take complete control over all of the relief efforts in Ireland. Trevelyan believed that the Irish situation should be left to Providence. Claiming that it would be dangerous to let the Irish become dependent on other countries, he even took steps to close food depots that were selling corn and to redirect shipments of com that were already on their way to Ireland. A few relief programs were eventually implemented, such as soup kitchens and workhouses; however, these were poorly run institutions that facilitated the spread of disease, tore apart families, and offered inadequate food supplies considering the extent of Ireland’s shortages. G Many of the effects of the Irish potato famine are still evident today. Descendants of those who fled Ireland during the 1840s are dispersed all over the world. Some of the homes that were evacuated by absentee land-lords still sit abandoned in the Irish hills. A number of Irish descendants still carry animosity toward the British for not putting people before politics. The potato blight itself still plagues the Irish people during certain growing seasons when weather conditions are favorable for the fungus to thrive. Questions 16-20 The passage has seven paragraphs, A-G. Which paragraphs contain the following information? 16 the position of the British government toward the potato famine 17 a description of the system of land ownership in Ireland 18 early European attitudes toward the potato 19 explanation of the lack of legal protection for Irish peasants 20 the importance of the potato in Irish society Questions 21-28 Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-L, from the box below. Write the correct letter in boxes 21-28 on your Answer Sheet. There are more endings than sentences, so you won’t use them all. Sentence Endings A because they couldn’t pay the rent on their farms. B because railroad trains caused air pollution. C because potatoes were their main source of food. D because Charles Trevelyan took over relief efforts. E because they needed the profits to pay the rent. F because they weren’t well-managed. G because there wasn’t enough land for the increasing population. H because his efforts to help the Irish were unpopular among the British. I because they believed that potatoes were poisonous. J because the British instituted penal laws. K because it was discovered that potatoes are full of nutrients. L because Marie Antoinette used potato blossoms as decoration. 21 At first Europeans didn’t eat potatoes 22 European monarchs encouraged potato growing 23 The potato blight was devastating to the Irish 24 Farmers who grew oats, wheat, and barley didn’t eat these crops 25 Many Irish farmers lived on infertile plots 26 Many Irish farmers were arrested 27 Sir Robert Peel lost his position as prime minister 28 Soup kitchens and workhouses didn’t relieve the suffering Anesthesiology Since the beginning of time, man has sought natural remedies for pain. Between 40 and 60 A.D., Greek physician, Dioscorides traveled with the Roman armies, studying the medicinal properties of plants and minerals. His book, De materia medico, written in five volumes and translated into at least seven languages, was the primary reference source for physicians for over sixteen centuries. The field of anesthesiology which was once nothing more than a list of medicinal plants and makeshift remedies, has grown into one of the most important fields in medicine. Many of the early pain relievers were based on myth and did little to relieve the suffering of an ill or injured person. The mandragora (now known as the mandrake plant) was one of the first plants to be used as an anesthetic. Due to the apparent screaming that the plant made as it was pulled from the ground, people in the Middle Ages believed that the person who removed the mandrake from the earth would either die or go insane. This superstition may have resulted because the split root of the mandrake resembled the human form. In order to pull the root from the ground, the plant collector would loosen it and tie the stem to an animal. It was believed that the safest time to uproot a mandrake was in the moonlight, and the best animal to use was a black dog. In his manual, Dioscorides suggested boiling the root with wine and having a man drink the potion to remove sensation before cutting his flesh or burning his skin. Opium and Indian hemp were later used to induce sleep before a painful procedure or to relieve the pain of an illness. Other remedies such as cocaine did more harm to the patient than good as people died from their addictions. President Ulysses S. Grant became addicted to cocaine before he died of throat cancer in 1885. The modern field of anesthetics dates to the incident when nitrous oxide (more commonly known as laughing gas) was accidentally discovered. Humphrey Davy, the inventor of the miner’s lamp, discovered that inhaling the toxic compound caused a strange euphoria, followed by fits of laughter, tears, and sometimes unconsciousness. U.S. dentist, Horace Wells, was the first on record to experiment with laughing gas, which he used in 1844 to relieve pain during a tooth extraction. Two years later, Dr. William Morton created the first anesthetic machine. This apparatus was a simple glass globe containing an ether-soaked sponge. Morton considered ether a good alternative to nitrous oxide because the numbing effect lasted considerably longer. His apparatus allowed the patient to inhale vapors whenever the pain became unbearable. In 1846, during a trial experiment in Boston, a tumor was successfully removed from a man’s jaw area while he was anesthetized with Morton’s machine. The first use of anesthesia in the obstetric field occurred in Scotland by Dr. James Simpson. Instead of ether, which he considered irritating to the eyes, Simpson administered chloroform to reduce the pain of childbirth. Simpson sprinkled chloroform on a handkerchief and allowed laboring women to inhale the fumes at their own discretion. In 1853, Queen Victoria agreed to use chloroform during the birth of her eighth child. Soon the use of chloroform during childbirth was both acceptable and fashionable. However, as chloroform became a more popular anesthetic, knowledge of its toxicity surfaced, and it was soon obsolete. After World War II, numerous developments were made in the field of anesthetics. Surgical procedures that had been unthinkable were being per-formed with little or no pain felt by the patient. Rather than physicians or nurses who administered pain relief as part of their profession, anesthesiologists became specialists in suppressing consciousness and alleviating pain. Anesthesiologists today are classified as perioperative physicians, meaning they take care of a patient before, during, and after surgical procedures. It takes over eight years of schooling and four years of residency until an anesthesiologist is prepared to practice in the United States. These experts are trained to administer three different types of anesthetics: general, local, and regional. General anesthetic is used to put a patient into a temporary state of unconsciousness. Local anesthetic is used only at the affected site and causes a loss of sensation. Regional anesthetic is used to block the sensation and possibly the movement of a larger portion of the body. As well as controlling the levels of pain for the patient before and throughout an operation, anesthesiologists are responsible for monitoring and controlling the patient’s vital functions during the procedure and assessing the medical needs in the post-operative room. The number of anesthesiologists in the United States has more than doubled since the 1970s, as has the improvement and success of operative care. In addition, complications from anesthesiology have declined dramatically. Over 40 million anesthetics are administered in the United States each year, with only 1 in 250,000 causing death. Questions 29-34 Do the following statements agree with the information in Passage 3? In boxes 29-34 on your Answer Sheet, write TRUE if the statement is true according to the passage. FALSE if the statement contradicts the passage. NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the passage. 29 Dioscorides’ book, De materia medica, fell out of use after 60 A.D. 30 Mandragora was used as an anesthetic during the Middle Ages. 31 Nitrous oxide can cause the user to both laugh and cry. 32 During the second half of the 19th century, most dentists used anesthesia. 33 Anesthesiologists in the United States are required to have 12 years of education and training. 34 There are fewer anesthesiologists in the United States now than there were 40 years ago. Questions 35-40 Match each fact about anesthesia with the type of anesthetic that it refers to. There are more types of anesthetics listed than facts, so you won’t use them all. Write the correct letter, A-H, in boxes 35-40 on your Answer Sheet. Types of Anesthetic A general anesthetic B local anesthetic C regional anesthetic D chloroform E ether F nitrous oxide G opium H mandrake 35 used by sprinkling on a handkerchief 36 used on only one specific part of the body 37 used by boiling with wine 38 used first during a dental procedure 39 used to stop feeling over a larger area of the body 40 used in the first anesthetic machine Answers 1. vi 2. ii 3. iii 4. vii 5. v 6. false 7. true 8. true 9. false 10. not given 11. B 12. D 13. H 14. A 15. G 16. F 17. D 18. B 19. E 20. C 21. I 22. K 23. C 24. E 25. G 26. A 27. H 28. F 29. false 30. true 31. true 32. not given 33. true 34. false 35. D 36. B 37. H 38. F 39. C 40. E

The Dover Bronze Age Boat It was 1992. In England, workmen were building a new road through the heart of Dover, to connect the ancient port and the Channel Tunnel, which, when it opened just two years later, was to be the first land link between Britain and Europe for over 10,000 years. A small team from the Canterbury Archaeological Trust (CAT) worked alongside the workmen, recording new discoveries brought to light by the machines. At the base of a deep shaft six metres below the modem streets a wooden structure was revealed. Cleaning away the waterlogged site overlying the timbers, archaeologists realised its true nature. They had found a prehistoric boat, preserved by the type of sediment in which it was buried. It was then named the Dover Bronze-Age Boat. About nine metres of the boat’s length was recovered; one end lay beyond the excavation and had to be left. What survived consisted essentially of four intricately carved oak planks: two on the bottom, joined along a central seam by a complicated system of wedges and timbers, and two at the side, curved and stitched to the others. The seams had been made watertight by pads of moss, fixed by wedges and yew stitches. The timbers that closed the recovered end of the boat had been removed in antiquity when it was abandoned, but much about its original shape could be deduced. There was also evidence for missing upper side planks. The boat was not a wreck, but had been deliberately discarded, dismantled and broken. Perhaps it had been ‘ritually killed’ at the end of its life, like other Bronze-Age objects. With hindsight, it was significant that the boat was found and studied by mainstream archaeologists who naturally focused on its cultural context. At the time, ancient boats were often considered only from a narrower technological perspective, but news about the Dover boat reached a broad audience. In 2002, on the tenth anniversary of the discovery, the Dover Bronze-Age Boat Trust hosted a conference, where this meeting of different traditions became apparent. Alongside technical papers about the boat, other speakers explored its social and economic contexts, and the religious perceptions of boats in Bronze-Age societies. Many speakers came from overseas, and debate about cultural connections was renewed. Within seven years of excavation, the Dover boat had been conserved and displayed, but it was apparent that there were issues that could not be resolved simply by studying the old wood. Experimental archaeology seemed to be the solution: a boat reconstruction, half-scale or full-sized, would permit assessment of the different hypotheses regarding its build and the missing end. The possibility of returning to Dover to search for the boat’s unexcavated northern end was explored, but practical and financial difficulties were insurmountable – and there was no guarantee that the timbers had survived the previous decade in the changed environment. Detailed proposals to reconstruct the boat were drawn up in 2004. Archaeological evidence was beginning to suggest a Bronze-Age community straddling the Channel, brought together by the sea, rather than separated by it. In a region today divided by languages and borders, archaeologists had a duty to inform the general public about their common cultural heritage. The boat project began in England but it was conceived from the start as a European collaboration. Reconstruction was only part of a scheme that would include a major exhibition and an extensive educational and outreach programme. Discussions began early in 2005 with archaeological bodies, universities and heritage organisations either side of the Channel. There was much enthusiasm and support, and an official launch of the project was held at an international seminar in France in 2007. Financial support was confirmed in 2008 and the project then named BOAT 1550BC got under way in June 2011. A small team began to make the boat at the start of 2012 on the Roman Lawn outside Dover museum. A full-scale reconstruction of a mid-section had been made in 1996, primarily to see how Bronze- Age replica tools performed. In 2012, however, the hull shape was at the centre of the work, so modem power tools were used to carve the oak planks, before turning to prehistoric tools for finishing. It was decided to make the replica half-scale for reasons of cost and time, and synthetic materials were used for the stitching, owing to doubts about the seeding and tight timetable. Meanwhile, the exhibition was being prepared ready for opening in July 2012 at the Castle Museum in Boulogne-sur-Mer. Entitled ‘Beyond the Horizon: Societies of the Channel & North Sea 3,500 years ago’, it brought together for the first time a remarkable collection of Bronze-Age objects, including many new discoveries for commercial archaeology and some of the great treasure of the past. The reconstructed boat, as a symbol of the maritime connections that bound together the communities either side of the Channel, was the centerpiece. Questions 1-5 Complete the flow chart below. Write NO MORE THAN ONE WORD from the passage. Key Events 1992 – the boat was discovered during the construction of a (1)………………..2002 – an international (2)………………was held to gather information2004 – (3)……………….for the reconstruction was reproduced2007 – the (4)……………..of boat 1550BC took place2012 – the Bronze Age (5)………………..featured the boat and other projects Questions 6-9 Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text? In boxes 6-9 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 6. Archaeologists realised that the boat had been damaged on purpose. 7. Initially, only the technological aspects of the boat were examined. 8. Archaeologists went back to the site to try and find the missing northern end of the boat. 9. Evidence found in 2004 suggested that the Bronze-Age Boat had been used for trade. Questions 10-13 Answer the questions below. Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORD OR A NUMBER from the passage. 10. How far under the ground was the boat found? 11. What natural material had been secured to the boat to prevent water entering? 12. What aspect of the boat was the focus of the 2012 reconstruction? 13. Which two factors influenced the decision not to make a full scale reconstruction of the boat? The Changing Role Of Airports A In recent times developing commercial revenues has become more challenging for airports due to a combination of factors, such as increased competition from Internet shopping, restrictions on certain sales, such as tobacco, and new security procedures that have had an impact on the dwell time of passengers. Moreover, the global economic downturn has caused a reduction in passenger numbers while those that are travelling generally have less money to spend. This has meant that the share of revenue from non-aeronautical revenues actually peaked at 54% at the turn of the century and has subsequently declined slightly. Meanwhile, the pressures to control the level of aeronautical revenues are as strong as ever due to the poor financial health of many airlines and the rapid rise of the low-cost carrier sector. B Some of the more obvious solutions to growing commercial revenues, such as extending the merchandising space or expanding the variety of shopping opportunities, have already been tried to their limit at many airports. A more radical solution is to find new sources of commercial revenue within the terminal, and this has been explored by many airports over the last decade or so. As a result, many terminals are now much more than just shopping malls and offer an array of entertainment, leisure, and beauty and wellness facilities. At this stage of facilities provision, the airport also has the possibility of taking on the role of the final destination rather than merely a facilitator of access. C At the same time, airports have been developing and expanding the range of services that they provide specifically for the business traveller in the terminal. This includes offering business centres that supply support services, meeting or conference rooms and other space for special events. Within this context, Jarach (2001) discusses how dedicated meetings facilities located within the terminal and managed directly by the airport operator may be regarded as an expansion of the concept of airline lounges or as a way to reconvert abandoned or underused areas of terminal buildings. Previously it was primarily airport hotels and other facilities offered in the surrounding area of the airport that had the potential to take on this role and become active as a business space (McNeill, 2009). D When an airport location can be promoted as a business venue, this may increase the overall appeal of the airport and help it become more competitive in both attracting and retaining airlines and their passengers. In particular, the presence of meeting facilities could become one of the determining factors taken into consideration when business people are choosing airlines and where they change their planes. This enhanced attractiveness itself may help to improve the airport operator’s financial position and future prospects, but clearly this will be dependent on the competitive advantage that the airport is able to achieve in comparison with other venues. E In 2011, an online airport survey was conducted and some of the areas investigated included the provision and use of meeting facilities at airports and the perceived role and importance of these facilities in generating income and raising passenger numbers. In total, there were responses from staff at 1 54 airports and 68% of these answered ‘yes’ to the question: Does your airport own and have meetings facilities available for hire? The existence of meeting facilities therefore seems high at airports. In addition, 28% of respondents that did not have meeting facilities stated that they were likely to invest in them during the next five years. The survey also asked to what extent respondents agreed or disagreed with a number of statements about the meeting facilities at their airport. 49% of respondents agreed that they have put more investment into them during recent years; 41% agreed that they would invest more in the immediate future. These are fairly high proportions considering the recent economic climate. F The survey also asked airports with meeting facilities to estimate what proportion of users are from the local area, i.e. within a 90-minute drive from the airport, or from abroad. Their findings show that meeting facilities provided by the majority of respondents tend to serve local versus non-local or foreign needs. 63% of respondents estimated that over 60% of users are from the local area. Only 3% estimated that over 80% of users are from abroad. It is therefore not surprising that the facilities are of limited importance when it comes to increasing use of flights at the airport: 16% of respondents estimated that none of the users of their meeting facilities use flights when travelling to or from them, while 56% estimated that 20% or fewer of the users of their facilities use flights. G The survey asked respondents with meeting facilities to estimate how much revenue their airport earned from its meeting facilities during the last financial year. Average revenue per airport was just $1 2,959. Meeting facilities are effectively a non-aeronautical source of airport revenue. Only 1% of respondents generated more than 20% non-aeronautical revenue from their meetings facilities; none generated more than 40%. Given the focus on local demand, it is not surprising that less than a third of respondents agreed that their meeting facilities support business and tourism development in their home region or country. H The findings of this study suggest that few airports provide meetings facilities as a serious commercial venture. It may be that, as owners of large property, space is available for meeting facilities at airports and could play an important role in serving the needs of the airport, its partners, and stakeholders such as government and the local community. Thus, while the local orientation means that competition with other airports is likely to be minimal, competition with local providers of meetings facilities is likely to be much greater. Questions 14-18 The text has eight paragraphs, A-H. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter, A-H, in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet. N.B. You may use any letter more than once. 14 evidence that a significant number of airports provide meeting facilities 15 a statement regarding the fact that no further developments are possible in some areas of airport trade 16 reference to the low level of income that meeting facilities produce for airports 17 mention of the impact of budget airlines on airport income 18 examples of airport premises that might be used for business purposes Questions 19-22 Complete the sentences below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 19-22 on your answer sheet. 19 The length of time passengers spend shopping at airports has been affected by updated…………………… 20 Airports with a wide range of recreational facilities can become a……………………………for people rather than a means to travel. 21 Both passengers and……………………………may feel encouraged to use and develop a sense of loyalty towards airports that market their business services. 22 Airports that supply meeting facilities may need to develop a…………………………..over other venues. Questions 23-26 Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text for each answer. Survey findings Despite financial constraints due to the (23)…………………………………. , a significant percentage of airports provide and wish to further support business meeting facilities. Also, just under 30% of the airports surveyed plan to provide these facilities within (24)…………………………………. However, the main users of the facilities are (25)……………………….. and as many as 16% of respondents to the survey stated that their users did not take any (26)…………………………………… at the airport. Is Photography Art? This may seem a pointless question today. Surrounded as we are by thousands of photographs, most of us take for granted that, in addition to supplying information and seducing customers, camera images also serve as decoration, afford spiritual enrichment, and provide significant insights into the passing scene. But in the decades following the discovery of photography, this question reflected the search for ways to fit the mechanical medium into the traditional schemes of artistic expression. The much-publicized pronouncement by painter Paul Delaroche that the daguerreotype* signalled the end of painting is perplexing because this clever artist also forecast the usefulness of the medium for graphic artists in a letter written in 1839. Nevertheless, it is symptomatic of the swing between the outright rejection and qualified acceptance of the medium that was fairly typical of the artistic establishment. Discussion of the role of photography in art was especially spirited in France, where the internal policies of the time had created a large pool of artists, but it was also taken up by important voices in England. In both countries, public interest in this topic was a reflection of the belief that national stature and achievement in the arts were related. From the maze of conflicting statements and heated articles on the subject, three main positions about the potential of camera art emerged. The simplest, entertained by many painters and a section of the public, was that photographs should not be considered ‘art’ because they were made with a mechanical device and by physical and chemical phenomena instead of by human hand and spirit; to some, camera images seemed to have more in common with fabric produced by machinery in a mill than with handmade creations fired by inspiration. The second widely held view, shared by painters, some photographers, and some critics, was that photographs would be useful to art but should not be considered equal in creativeness to drawing and painting. Lastly, by assuming that the process was comparable to other techniques such as etching and lithography, a fair number of individuals realized that camera images were or could be as significant as handmade works of art and that they might have a positive influence on the arts and on culture in general. Artists reacted to photography in various ways. Many portrait painters – miniaturists in particular – who realized that photography represented the ‘handwriting on the wall’ became involved with daguerreotyping or paper photography in an effort to save their careers; some incorporated it with painting, while others renounced painting altogether. Still other painters, the most prominent among them the French painter, Jean- Auguste-Dominique Ingres, began almost immediately to use photography to make a record of their own output and also to provide themselves with source material for poses and backgrounds, vigorously denying at the same time its influence on their vision or its claims as art. The view that photographs might be worthwhile to artists was enunciated in considerable detail by Lacan and Francis Wey. 1‘he latter, an art and literary critic, who eventually recognised that camera images could be inspired as well as informative, suggested that they would lead to greater naturalness in the graphic depiction of anatomy, clothing, likeness, expression, and landscape. By studying photographs, true artists, he claimed, would be relieved of menial tasks and become free to devote themselves to the more important spiritual aspects of their work. Wey left unstated what the incompetent artist might do as an alternative, but according to the influential French critic and poet Charles Baudelaire, writing in response to an exhibition of photography in 1859, lazy and untalented painters would become photographers. Fired by a belief in art as an imaginative embodiment of cultivated ideas and dreams, Baudelaire regarded photography as ‘a very humble servant of art and science’; a medium largely unable to transcend ‘external reality’. For this critic, photography was linked with ‘the great industrial madness’ of the time, which in his eyes exercised disastrous consequences on the spiritual qualities of life and art. Eugene Delacroix was the most prominent of the French artists who welcomed photography as help-mate but recognized its limitations. Regretting that ‘such a wonderful invention’ had arrived so late in his lifetime, he still took lessons in daguerreotyping, and both commissioned and collected photographs. Delacroix’s enthusiasm for the medium can be sensed in a journal entry noting that if photographs were used as they should be, an artist might ‘raise himself to heights that we do not yet know’. The question of whether the photograph was document or art aroused interest in England also. The most important statement on this matter was an unsigned article that concluded that while photography had a role to play, it should not be ‘constrained’ into ‘competition’ with art; a more stringent viewpoint led critic Philip Gilbert Hamerton to dismiss camera images as ‘narrow in range, emphatic in assertion, telling one truth for ten falsehoods’. These writers reflected the opposition of a section of the cultural elite in England and France to the ‘cheapening of art’ which the growing acceptance and purchase of camera pictures by the middle class represented. Technology made photographic images a common sight in the shop windows of Regent Street and Piccadilly in London and the commercial boulevards of Paris. In London, for example, there were at the time some commercial establishments where portraits, landscapes, and photographic reproductions of works of art could be bought. This appeal to the middle class convinced the elite that photographs would foster a desire for realism instead of idealism, even though some critics recognized that the work of individual photographers might display an uplifting style and substance that was consistent with the defining characteristics of art. Questions 27-30 Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D. 27. What is the writer’s main point in the first paragraph? A. Photography is used for many different purposes B. Photographers and artists have the same principal aims C. Photography has not always been a readily accepted art form D. Photographers today are more creative than those of the past 28. What public view about artists was shared by the French and the English? A. that only artists could reflect a culture’s true values B. that only artists were qualified to judge photography C. that artists could lose work as a result of photography D. that artistic success raised a country’s international profile 29. What does the writer mean in line 59 by ‘the handwriting on the wall’? A. an example of poor talent B. a message that cannot be trusted C. an advertisement for something new D. a signal that something bad will happen 30. What was the result of the widespread availability of photographs to the middle classes? A. the most educated worried about its impact on public taste B. it helped artists appreciate the merits of photography C. improvements were made in photographic methods D. it led to a reduction in price of photographs Questions 31-34 Completed the summary of paragraph 3 using the list of words A-G below. A inventive B similar C beneficial D next E mixed F justified G inferior Camera art In the early days of photography, opinions on its future were (31)………………………………, but three clear views emerged. A large number of artists and ordinary people saw photographs as (32)…………………………………..to paintings because of the way they were produced. Another popular view was that photographs could have a role to play in the art world, despite the photographer being less (33)………………………………….Finally, a smaller number of people suspected that the impact of photography on art and society could be (34)…………………….. Questions 35-40 Look at the following statements and the list of people, A-E, below. Match each statement with the correct person. Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 35-40 on your answer sheet. 35 He claimed that photography would make paintings more realistic. 36 He highlighted the limitations and deceptions of the camera. 37 He documented his production of artwork by photographing his works. 38 He noted the potential for photography to enrich artistic talent. 39 He based some of the scenes in his paintings on photographs. 40 He felt photography was part of the trend towards greater mechanisation. A Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres B Francis Wey C Charles Baudelaire D Eugene Delacroix E Philip Gilbert Hamerton Answers 1. road 2. conference 3. proposals 4. launch 5. exhibition 6. true 7. false 8. false 9. not given 10. 6 11. (pads of) moss 12. hull (shape) 13. cost and time 14. E 15. B 16. G 17. A 18. C 19. security procedures 20. final desination 21. airlines 22. competitive advantage 23. economic downturn 24. five years 25. local (people) 26. flights 27. C 28. D 29. D 30. A 31. E 32. G 33. A 34. C 35. B 36. E 37. A 38. D 39. A 40. C

Flying tortoises A Forests of spiny cacti cover much of the uneven lava plains that separate the interior of the Galapagos island of Isabela from the Pacific Ocean. With its five distinct volcanoes, the island resembles a lunar landscape. Only the thick vegetation at the skirt of the often cloud-covered peak of Sierra Negra offers respite from the barren terrain below. This inhospitable environment is home to the giant Galapagos tortoise. Some time after the Galapagos’s birth, around five million years ago, the islands were colonised by one or more tortoises from mainland South America. As these ancestral tortoises settled on the individual islands, the different populations adapted to their unique environments, giving rise to at least 14 different subspecies. Island life agreed with them. In the absence of significant predators, they grew to become the largest and longest-living tortoises on the planet, weighing more than 400 kilograms, occasionally exceeding 1,8 metres in length and living for more than a century. B Before human arrival, the archipelago’s tortoises numbered in the hundreds of thousands. From the 17th century onwards, pirates took a few on board for food, but the arrival of whaling ships in the 1790s saw this exploitation grow exponentially. Relatively immobile and capable of surviving for months without food or water, the tortoises were taken on board these ships to act as food supplies during long ocean passages. Sometimes, their bodies were processed into high- grade oil. In total, an estimated 200,000 animals were taken from the archipelago before the 20th century. This historical exploitation was then exacerbated when settlers came to the islands. They hunted the tortoises and destroyed their habitat to clear land for agriculture. They also introduced alien species – ranging from cattle, pigs, goats, rats and dogs to plants and ants – that either prey on the eggs and young tortoises or damage or destroy their habitat. C Today, only 11 of the original subspecies survive and of these, several are highly endangered. In 1989, work began on a tortoise-breeding centre just outside the town of Puerto Villamil on Isabela, dedicated to protecting the island’s tortoise populations. The centre’s captive-breeding programme proved to be extremely successful, and it eventually had to deal with an overpopulation problem. D The problem was also a pressing one. Captive-bred tortoises can’t be reintroduced into the wild until they’re at least five years old and weigh at least 4,5 kilograms, at which point their size and weight – and their hardened shells – are sufficient to protect them from predators. But if people wait too long after that point, the tortoises eventually become too large to transport. E For years, repatriation efforts were carried out in small numbers, with the tortoises carried on the backs of men over weeks of long, treacherous hikes along narrow trails. But in November 2010, the environmentalist and Galapagos National Park liaison officer Godfrey Merlin, a visiting private motor yacht captain and a helicopter pilot gathered around a table in a small cafe in Puerto Ayora on the island of Santa Cruz to work out more ambitious reintroduction. The aim was to use a helicopter to move 300 of the breeding centre’s tortoises to various locations close to Sierra Negra. F This unprecedented effort was made possible by the owners of the 67-metre yacht White Cloud, who provided the Galapagos National Park with free use of their helicopter and its experienced pilot, as well as the logistical support of the yacht, its captain and crew. Originally an air ambulance, the yacht’s helicopter has a rear double door and a large internal space that’s well suited for cargo, so a custom crate was designed to hold up to 33 tortoises with a total weight of about 150 kilograms. This weight, together with that of the fuel, pilot and four crew, approached the helicopter’s maximum payload, and there were times when it was clearly right on the edge of the helicopter’s capabilities. During a period of three days, a group of volunteers from the breeding centre worked around the clock to prepare the young tortoises for transport. Meanwhile, park wardens, dropped off ahead of time in remote locations, cleared landing sites within the thick brush, cacti and lava rocks. G Upon their release, the juvenile tortoises quickly spread out over their ancestral territory, investigating their new surroundings and feeding on the vegetation. Eventually, one tiny tortoise came across a fully grown giant who had been lumbering around the island for around a hundred years. The two stood side by side, a powerful symbol of the regeneration of an ancient species. Questions 1-7 Reading passage 1 has seven paragraphs A-G. Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below. List of headings i The importance of getting the timing right ii Young meets old iii Developments to the disadvantage of tortoise populations iv Planning a bigger idea v Tortoises populate the islands vi Carrying out a carefully prepared operation vii Looking for a home for the islands’ tortoises viii The start of the conservation project 1. Paragraph A 2. Paragraph B 3. Paragraph C 4. Paragraph D 5. Paragraph E 6. Paragraph F 7. Paragraph G Questions 8-13 Complete the notes below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. The decline of the Galapagos tortoise • Originally from mainland South America • Numbers on Galapagos islands increased due to lack of predators • 17th century: small numbers taken onto ships used by (8)……………………….. • 1790s: very large numbers taken onto whaling ships kept for (9)………………………and also used to produce (10)…………………………. • Hunted by (11)………………………..on the islands • Habitat destruction: for the establishment of agriculture and by various (12)…………………………not native to the islands which also fed on baby tortoises and tortoises’ (13)………………………. The Intersection of Health Sciences and Geography A While many diseases that affect humans have been eradicated due to improvements in vaccinations and the availability of healthcare, there are still areas around the world where certain health issues are more prevalent. In a world that is far more globalised than ever before, people come into contact with one another through travel and living closer and closer to each other. As a result, super-viruses and other infections resistant to antibiotics are becoming more and more common. B Geography can often play a very large role in the health concerns of certain populations. For instance, depending on where you live, you will not have the same health concerns as someone who lives in a different geographical region. Perhaps one of the most obvious examples of this idea is malaria-prone areas, which are usually tropical regions that foster a warm and damp environment in which the mosquitos that can give people this disease can grew. Malaria is much less of a problem in high-altitude deserts, for instance. C In some countries, geographical factors influence the health and well-being of the population in very obvious ways. In many large cities, the wind is not strong enough to clear the air of the massive amounts of smog and pollution that cause asthma, lung problems, eyesight issues and more in the people who live there. Part of the problem is, of course, the massive number of cars being driven, in addition to factories that run on coal power. The rapid industrialisation of some countries in recent years has also led to the cutting down of forests to allow for the expansion of big cities, which makes it even harder to fight the pollution with the fresh air that is produced by plants. D It is in situations like these that the field of health geography comes into its own. It is an increasingly important area of study in a world where diseases like polio are re-emerging, respiratory diseases continue to spread, and malaria-prone areas are still fighting to find a better cure. Health geography is the combination of, on the one hand, knowledge regarding geography and methods used to analyse and interpret geographical information, and on the other, the study of health, diseases and healthcare practices around the world. The aim of this hybrid science is to create solutions for common geography-based health problems. While people will always be prone to illness, the study of how geography affects our health could lead to the eradication of certain illnesses, and the prevention of others in the future. By understanding why and how we get sick, we can change the way we treat illness and disease specific to certain geographical locations. E The geography of disease and ill health analyses the frequency with which certain diseases appear in different parts of the world, and overlays the data with the geography of the region, to see if there could be a correlation between the two. Health geographers also study factors that could make certain individuals or a population more likely to be taken ill with a specific health concern or disease, as compared with the population of another area. Health geographers in this field are usually trained as healthcare workers, and have an understanding of basic epidemiology as it relates to the spread of diseases among the population. F Researchers study the interactions between humans and their environment that could lead to illness (such as asthma in places with high levels of pollution) and work to create a clear way of categorising illnesses, diseases and epidemics into local and global scales. Health geographers can map the spread of illnesses and attempt to identify the reasons behind an increase or decrease in illnesses, as they work to find a way to halt the further spread or re-emergence of diseases in vulnerable populations. G The second subcategory of health geography is the geography of healthcare provision. This group studies the availability (of lack thereof) of healthcare resources to individuals and populations around the world. In both developed and developing nations there is often a very large discrepancy between the options available to people in different social classes, income brackets, and levels of education. Individuals working in the area of the geography of healthcare provision attempt to assess the levels of healthcare in the area (for instance, it may be very difficult for people to get medical attention because there is a mountain between their village and the nearest hospital). These researchers are on the frontline of making recommendations regarding policy to international organisations, local government bodies and others. H The field of health geography is often overlooked, but it constitutes a huge area of need in the fields of geography and healthcare. If we can understand how geography affects our health no matter where in the world we are located, we can better treat disease, prevent illness, and keep people safe and well. Questions 14-19 Reading passage 2 has eight sections A-H. Which paragraph contains the following information? NB You may use any letter more than once. 14. an acceptance that not all diseases can be totally eliminated 15. examples of physical conditions caused by human behavior 16. a reference to classifying diseases on the basis of how far they extend gepgraphically 17. reasons why the level of access to healthcare can vary within a country 18. a description of healthy geography as a mixture of different academic fields 19. a description of the type of area where a particular illness is rare Questions 20-26 Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. 20. Certain diseases have disappeared thanks to better…………………………….and healthcare. 21. Because there is more contact between people………………………….are losing their usefulness. 22. Disease causing……………………….are most likely to be found in hot, damp regions. 23. One cause of pollution is………………………….that burn a particular fuel. 24. The growth of cities often has an impact on nearby. 25. …………………………………is one disease that is growing after having been eradicated. 26. A physical barrier such as a……………………………can prevent people from reaching a hospital. Music and the emotions Why does music make us feel? On the one hand, music is a purely abstract art form, devoid of language or explicit ideas. And yet, even though music says little, it still manages to touch us deeply. When listening to our favourite songs, our body betrays all the symptoms of emotional arousal. The pupils in our eyes dilate, our pulse and blood pressure rise, the electrical conductance of our skin is lowered, and the cerebellum, a brain region associated with bodily movement, becomes strangely active. Blood is even re-directed to the muscles in our legs. In other words, sound stirs us at our biological roots. A recent paper in Neuroscience by a research team in Montreal, Canada, marks an important step in repealing the precise underpinnings of ‘the potent pleasurable stimulus’ that is music. Although the study involves plenty of fancy technology, including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and ligand-based positron emission tomography (PET) scanning, the experiment itself was rather straightforward. After screening 217 individuals who responded to advertisements requesting people who experience ‘chills’ to instrumental music, the scientists narrowed down the subject pool to ten. They then asked the subjects to bring in their playlist of favourite songs – virtually every genre was represented, from techno to tango – and played them the music while their brain activity was monitored. Because the scientists were combining methodologies (PET and fMRI), they were able to obtain an impressively exact and detailed portrait of music in the brain. The first thing they discovered is that music triggers the production of dopamine – a chemical with a key role in setting people’s moods – by the neurons (nerve cells) in both the dorsal and ventral regions of the brain. As these two regions have long been linked with the experience of pleasure, this finding isn’t particularly surprising. What is rather more significant is the finding that the dopamine neurons in the caudate – a region of the brain involved in learning stimulus-response associations, and in anticipating food and other ‘reward’ stimuli – were at their most active around 15 seconds before the participants’ favourite moments in the music. The researchers call this the ‘anticipatory phase’ and argue that the purpose of this activity is to help us predict the arrival of our favourite part. The question, of course, is what all these dopamine neurons are up to. Why are they so active in the period preceding the acoustic climax? After all, we typically associate surges of dopamine with pleasure, with the processing of actual rewards. And yet, this cluster of cells is most active when the ‘chills’ have yet to arrive, when the melodic pattern is still unresolved. One way to answer the question is to look at the music and not the neurons. While music can often seem (at least to the outsider) like a labyrinth of intricate patterns, it turns out that the most important part of every song or symphony is when the patterns break down, when the sound becomes unpredictable. If the music is too obvious, it is annoyingly boring, like an alarm clock. Numerous studies, after all, have demonstrated that dopamine neurons quickly adapt to predictable rewards. If we know what’s going to happen next, then we don’t get excited. This is why composers often introduce a key note in the beginning of a song, spend most of the rest of the piece in the studious avoidance of the pattern, and then finally repeat it only at the end. The longer we are denied the pattern we expect, the greater the emotional release when the pattern returns, safe and sound. To demonstrate this psychological principle, the musicologist Leonard Meyer, in his classic book Emotion and Meaning in Music (1956), analysed the 5th movement of Beethoven’s String Quartet in C-sharp minor, Op. 131. Meyer wanted to show how music is defined by its flirtation with – but not submission to – our expectations of order. Meyer dissected 50 measures (bars) of the masterpiece, showing how Beethoven begins with the clear statement of a rhythmic and harmonic pattern and then, in an ingenious tonal dance, carefully holds off repeating it. What Beethoven does instead is suggest variations of the pattern. Me wants to preserve an element of uncertainty in his music, making our brains beg for the one chord he refuses to give us. Beethoven saves that chord for the end. According to Meyer, it is the suspenseful tension of music, arising out of our unfulfilled expectations, that is the source of the music’s feeling. While earlier theories of music focused on the way a sound can refer to the real world of images and experiences – its ‘connotative’ meaning – Meyer argued that the emotions we find in music come from the unfolding events of the music itself. This ‘embodied meaning’ arises from the patterns the symphony invokes and then ignores. It is this uncertainty that triggers the surge of dopamine in the caudate, as we struggle to figure out what will happen next. We can predict some of the notes, but we can’t predict them all, and that is what keeps us listening, waiting expectantly for our reward, for the pattern to be completed. Questions 27-31 Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. The Montreal Study Participants who were recruited for the study through advertisements had their brain activity monitored while listening to their favourite music. It was noted that the music stimulated the brain’s neurons to release a substance called (27)……………………….in two of the parts of the brain which are associated with feeling (28)………………………….. Researchers also observed that the neurons in the area of the brain called the (29)……………………..were particularly active just before the participants’ favourite moments in the music – the period known as the (30)……………………………….Activity in this part of the brain is associated with the expectation of reward stimuli such as (31)…………………………. Questions 32-36 Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D. 32. What point does the writer emphasise in the first paragraph? A. how dramatically our reactions to music can vary B. how intense our physical responses to music can be C. how little we know about the way that music affects us D. how much music can tell us about how our brains operate 33. What view of the Montreal study does the writer express in the second paragraph? A. its aims were innovative B. the approach was too simplistic C. it produces some remarkably precise data D. the technology used was unnecessarily complex 34. What does the writer find interesting about the results of the Montreal study? A. the timing of participants’ neural responses to the music B. the impact of the music on participants’ emotional state C. the section of participants’ brains which was activated by the music D. the type of music which has the strongest effect on the participants’ brains 35. Why does the writer refer to Meyer’s work on music and emotion? A. to propose an original theory about the subject B. to offer support for the findings of the Montreal study C. to recommend the need for further research into the subject D. to present a view which opposes that of the Montreal researchers 36. According to Leonard Meyer, what causes the listener’s emotional response to music? A. the way the music evokes poignant memories in the listener B. the association of certain musical chords with certain feelings C. the listener’s sympathy with the composer’s intentions D. the internal structure of the musical composition Questions 37-40 Complete each sentence with the correct ending A-F below. 37. The Montreal researchers discovered that 38. Many studies have demonstrated that 39. Meyer’s analysis of Beethoven’s music shows that 40. Earlier theories of music suggested that A. Our response to music depends on our initial emotional state. B. neuron activity decreases if outcomes become predictable. C. emotive music can bring to mind actual pictures and events. D. experiences in our past can influence our emotional reaction to music. E. emotive music delays giving listeners what they expect to hear. F. neuron activity increases prior to key points in a musical piece. Answers 1. v 2. iii 3. viii 4. i 5. iv 6. vi 7. ii 8. pirates 9. food 10. oil 11. settlers 12. species 13. eggs 14. D 15. C 16. F 17. G 18. D 19. B 20. vaccinations 21. antibiotics 22. mosquitoes 23. factories 24. forests 25. polio 26. mountain 27. dopamine 28. pleasure 29. caudate 30. anticipatory phase 31. food 32. B 33. C 34. A 35. B 36. D 37. F 38. B 39. E 40. C

100 sentences with adjectives and adverbs, each requiring the correct degree to complete the sentence 1. She ran __________ (fast) than anyone else in the race. Answer: faster 2. This is the __________ (tall) building in the city. Answer: tallest 3. He is a __________ (good) singer than his brother. Answer: better 4. She plays the violin __________ (beautiful) in the orchestra. Answer: most beautifully 5. The car moved __________ (slow) in heavy traffic. Answer: more slowly 6. It was __________ (hot) yesterday than it is today. Answer: hotter 7. This is the __________ (expensive) item in the store. Answer: most expensive 8. The baby slept __________ (peaceful) throughout the night. Answer: peacefully 9. The child spoke __________ (loud) than his friends. Answer: more loudly 10. The coffee tastes __________ (good) with some sugar added. Answer: better 11. He is the __________ (intelligent) student in the class. Answer: most intelligent 12. The sun shines __________ (bright) in the morning. Answer: brightest 13. She sang __________ (beautiful) than anyone else at the competition. Answer: more beautifully 14. The dog barks __________ (loud) at night. Answer: more loudly 15. This is the __________ (interesting) book I have ever read. Answer: most interesting 16. The snowfall was __________ (heavy) than expected. Answer: heavier 17. The dessert tastes __________ (sweet) with a scoop of ice cream. Answer: sweeter 18. The students worked __________ (hard) to complete the project. Answer: harder 19. He spoke __________ (clear) so that everyone could understand him. Answer: more clearly 20. It was the __________ (exciting) game of the season. Answer: most exciting 21. The weather is getting __________ (warm) as spring approaches. Answer: warmer 22. She danced __________ (graceful) than the other performers. Answer: more gracefully 23. This is the __________ (difficult) puzzle I have ever attempted. Answer: most difficult 24. He speaks English __________ (fluent) than his classmates. Answer: more fluently 25. The car drives __________ (smooth) on the newly paved road. Answer: more smoothly 26. The storm grew __________ (intense) as the wind picked up. Answer: more intense 27. She painted the picture __________ (careful) to capture every detail. Answer: more carefully 28. It was the __________ (amazing) performance I have ever seen. Answer: most amazing 29. The little girl smiled __________ (happily) when she saw her birthday cake. Answer: happily 30. The coffee smells __________ (good) in the morning. Answer: better 31. He is the __________ (talented) artist in our art class. Answer: most talented 32. The music played __________ (soft) as everyone listened attentively. Answer: softly 33. This is the __________ (important) decision of my life. Answer: most important 34. The train arrived __________ (late) than expected. Answer: later 35. The flowers bloomed __________ (beautiful) in the spring garden. Answer: most beautifully 36. She handled the situation __________ (calm) despite the chaos. Answer: calmly 37. It was the __________ (delicious) meal I have ever tasted. Answer: most delicious 38. The runner finished the race __________ (quick) than anyone else. Answer: quicker 39. The baby giggled __________ (cute) when tickled. Answer: cutely 40. The car drives __________ (efficient) with its new engine. Answer: more efficiently 41. The sun sets __________ (beautiful) over the horizon. Answer: most beautifully 42. He is the __________ (athletic) player on the team. Answer: most athletic 43. She studied __________ (hard) for the exam. Answer: harder 44. The music played __________ (loud) at the concert. Answer: louder 45. This is the __________ (exciting) movie I have ever seen. Answer: most exciting 46. The flowers smell __________ (fragrant) in the garden. Answer: most fragrant 47. He performed the magic trick __________ (clever) than anyone else. Answer: more cleverly 48. The plane landed __________ (smooth) on the runway. Answer: more smoothly 49. The cake tastes __________ (sweet) with the frosting on top. Answer: sweeter 50. She speaks English __________ (fluent) among all the students. Answer: most fluently 51. He is the __________ (popular) person in school. Answer: most popular 52. The wind blew __________ (strong) during the storm. Answer: stronger 53. This is the __________ (challenging) puzzle I have ever attempted. Answer: most challenging 54. She spoke __________ (soft) so as not to wake the baby. Answer: softly 55. The sunset looked __________ (stunning) with vibrant colors. Answer: most stunning 56. He tackled the problem __________ (brave) despite the risks. Answer: bravely 57. It was the __________ (memorable) trip of our lives. Answer: most memorable 58. The car accelerated __________ (fast) on the open highway. Answer: faster 59. The baby slept __________ (peaceful) in her crib. Answer: peacefully 60. The coffee tastes __________ (strong) with an extra shot of espresso. Answer: stronger 61. The mountain peak is the __________ (high) in the entire range. Answer: highest 62. She sings __________ (beautiful) than anyone I know. Answer: more beautifully 63. This is the __________ (difficult) decision I have ever had to make. Answer: most difficult 64. He played the piano __________ (skillful) at the concert. Answer: most skillfully 65. The car drives __________ (smooth) on the newly paved road. Answer: more smoothly 66. It was the __________ (amazing) experience I have ever had. Answer: most amazing 67. She danced __________ (graceful) of all the dancers. Answer: most gracefully 68. The child spoke __________ (clear) so that everyone could understand. Answer: more clearly 69. The dog barked __________ (loud) when the doorbell rang. Answer: louder 70. The dessert tastes __________ (sweet) with a dollop of whipped cream. Answer: sweeter 71. He is the __________ (generous) person I know. Answer: most generous 72. The fire spread __________ (quick) through the dry grass. Answer: quickly 73. This is the __________ (fascinating) book I've read in a long time. Answer: most fascinating 74. She spoke __________ (loud) than everyone else in the room. Answer: more loudly 75. The sunset was __________ (breathtaking) with vibrant colors. Answer: most breathtaking 76. He handled the situation __________ (calm) than expected. Answer: more calmly 77. It was the __________ (delicious) meal we had during our trip. Answer: most delicious 78. The child played __________ (joyful) in the park. Answer: most joyfully 79. The car drives __________ (efficient) with its new engine. Answer: more efficiently 80. She danced __________ (graceful) at the ballet recital. Answer: most gracefully 81. He is the __________ (creative) artist in the gallery. Answer: most creative 82. The rain fell __________ (heavy) during the storm. Answer: heavily 83. This is the __________ (important) event of the year. Answer: most important 84. She ran __________ (quick) to catch the bus. Answer: quickly 85. The movie was __________ (entertaining) than I expected. Answer: more entertaining 86. He played the guitar __________ (skillful) at the concert. Answer: most skillfully 87. It was the __________ (memorable) trip of our lives. Answer: most memorable 88. The child laughed __________ (happily) at the funny joke. Answer: happily 89. The coffee tastes __________ (strong) with an extra shot of espresso. Answer: stronger 90. The wind blew __________ (gently) through the trees. Answer: gently 91. She is the __________ (talented) dancer in the company. Answer: most talented 92. The music played __________ (soft) in the background. Answer: softly 93. This is the __________ (difficult) task I have ever encountered. Answer: most difficult 94. He spoke __________ (clear) so that everyone could understand. Answer: more clearly 95. The flowers bloomed __________ (colorful) in the spring garden. Answer: most colorfully 96. The team played __________ (poor) in the first half. Answer: poorly 97. It was the __________ (exciting) match of the season. Answer: most exciting 98. The car drove __________ (smooth) on the newly paved road. Answer: more smoothly 99. The cake tastes __________ (sweet) with a hint of vanilla. Answer: sweeter 100. She spoke __________ (confident) in front of the large audience. Answer: more confidently