Cambridge IELTS 13 Reading Vocabulary

Test-1

Case Study: Tourism New Zealand Website

Passage-1

1. Inhabitants - (n.) the people who live in a particular place Example: New Zealand has four million inhabitants.

2. Long-haul - (adj.) involving or covering long distances Example: New Zealand is a long-haul flight from major tourist markets.

3. Gross domestic product (GDP) - (n.) the total value of goods and services produced in a country in a given period Example: Tourism contributes to New Zealand's gross domestic product.

4. Export sector - (n.) a part of the economy that involves selling goods or services to other countries Example: Tourism is New Zealand's largest export sector.

5. Overseas - (adv.) in or to a foreign country Example: Tourism brings customers from overseas to New Zealand.

6. Campaign - (n.) a series of organized activities with a particular goal, usually involving advertising or promotion Example: Tourism New Zealand launched a campaign to promote the country.

7. Brand position - (n.) the unique identity or image that a brand has in the minds of consumers Example: The brand position of New Zealand focused on scenic beauty and outdoor activities.

8. Scenic beauty - (n.) the attractive or visually pleasing aspects of natural landscapes Example: New Zealand's scenic beauty attracts many tourists.

9. Exhilarating - (adj.) making you feel very excited, happy, or alive Example: New Zealand offers exhilarating outdoor activities like bungee jumping.

10. Authentic - (adj.) genuine, real, or true Example: Visitors can experience authentic Maori culture in New Zealand.

11. National brands - (n.) brands that are widely recognized and associated with a specific country Example: New Zealand became one of the strongest national brands in the world.

12. Website - (n.) a collection of web pages accessible via the internet Example: The website www.newzealand.com provided information about the country.

13. Gateway - (n.) an entrance or access point to a particular place or system Example: The website served as a gateway to everything New Zealand had to offer.

14. Database - (n.) a structured collection of data stored and organized for easy retrieval Example: The website had a database of tourism services operators.

15. Tourism-related - (adj.) connected to or associated with tourism Example: Any tourism-related business could be listed on the website.

16. Web presence - (n.) the visibility or existence of a person, business, or organization on the internet Example: Even small bed and breakfasts could gain a web presence through the website.

17. Evaluation - (n.) the process of assessing or judging the quality, value, or importance of something Example: Participating businesses underwent an evaluation against national standards.

18. Environment - (n.) the surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates Example: The effect of each business on the environment was considered.

19. Experience - (n.) an event or occurrence that leaves an impression on someone Example: Tourism in New Zealand offers unique experiences for visitors.

20. Interview - (n.) a formal meeting in which one person asks questions and another person answers them Example: The website featured an interview with a former rugby captain.

21. Blockbuster films - (n.) highly successful and widely popular movies Example: The website showcased locations used in blockbuster films.

22. Interactive - (adj.) involving communication or action between people or things Example: The website offered an interactive journey through various locations.

23. Itineraries - (n.) a planned route or journey with a list of places to visit Example: The website helped travelers devise their own customized itineraries.

24. Motoring holidays - (n.) vacations or trips involving travel by car or other vehicles Example: The website catalogued popular driving routes for motoring holidays.

25. Catalogued - (adj.) organized or listed systematically, often in a catalog or similar format Example: The website catalogued driving routes for easy reference.

26. Suggested - (adj.) offered or recommended as an idea or possibility Example: The Travel Planner suggested routes between chosen locations.

27. Public transport - (n.) transportation services available for use by the general public, such as buses or trains Example: The website provided information about public transport options.

28. Accommodation - (n.) a place to stay or live, especially on a temporary basis Example: The website included links to various accommodation options.

29. Registering - (v.) signing up or enrolling for membership or participation Example: Users could save their Travel Plan by registering on the website.

30. Travel Plan - (n.) a personalized plan or schedule for a trip or journey Example: Users could save and revisit their customized Travel Plan.

31. Webby awards - (n.) awards given for outstanding achievement and innovation in web design and development Example: The website won two Webby awards for online achievement.

32. Expenditure - (n.) the act of spending money on something Example: Tourism expenditure in New Zealand increased over the years.

33. Overall - (adj.) taking everything into account; considering all aspects Example: Overall, tourism in New Zealand experienced significant growth.

34. British - (adj.) relating to or characteristic of Britain or its people Example: Visits to New Zealand from British tourists grew at a high rate.

35. Visits abroad - (n.) trips or travels to foreign countries Example: The growth rate for visits abroad by British tourists was lower.

36. Individuals - (n.) single persons considered separately from a group or society Example: The website allowed individuals to create their own itineraries.

37. Travel organizations - (n.) companies or groups that specialize in providing travel-related services Example: Travel organizations could create customized travel packages.

38. Geographical location - (n.) a specific point or area on the Earth's surface Example: Visitors could search for activities not just by geographical location.

39. Nature - (n.) the inherent or essential qualities or characteristics of something Example: Activities could be searched by the nature of the activity.

40. Research - (n.) the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions Example: Research shows

1. Research - (n.) the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions Example: Research shows that activities are a key driver of visitor satisfaction.

2. Visitor satisfaction - (n.) the level of contentment or fulfillment experienced by visitors Example: Activities contribute to visitor satisfaction in New Zealand.

3. Transport infrastructure - (n.) the physical structures and systems for the movement of people and goods Example: New Zealand is known for its reliable transport infrastructure.

4. Once-in-a-lifetime - (adj.) happening or experienced only once in a person's lifetime Example: Many visitors see their trip to New Zealand as a once-in-a-lifetime experience.

5. Lessons - (n.) valuable knowledge or wisdom gained from experience or study Example: The underlying lessons can be applied to any destination.

6. Effectiveness - (n.) the degree to which something is successful in producing the desired results Example: A strong brand can enhance the effectiveness of marketing campaigns.

7. Strategy - (n.) a plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal or objective Example: A strategy based on unique experiences can attract more tourists.

8. Comprehensive - (adj.) complete, including all necessary aspects or elements Example: The website provided a comprehensive range of information.

9. User-friendly - (adj.) easy to use or understand for the intended user Example: The website was designed to be user-friendly for visitors.

10. Small businesses - (n.) independently owned and operated enterprises that are relatively small in size Example: New Zealand's visitor economy is composed mainly of small businesses.

11. Reliable - (adj.) dependable, able to be trusted or relied on Example: New Zealand is perceived as a reliable and safe destination.

Passage-2

Why Being Bored Is Stimulating – And Useful Too

A

1. Boredom - (n.) a state of feeling uninterested, unengaged, or lacking stimulation Example: I often experience boredom during long meetings.

2. Lab - (n.) a laboratory, a controlled environment for scientific research and experimentation Example: The scientists conducted their experiments in the lab.

3. Frustration - (n.) a feeling of being upset or annoyed due to obstacles or unmet desires Example: The constant delays caused a lot of frustration among the passengers.

4. Apathy - (n.) lack of interest, enthusiasm, or concern Example: He showed apathy towards the project and didn't contribute much.

5. Depression - (n.) a mental health disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness and loss of interest Example: She sought therapy to address her depression.

6. Indifference - (n.) a lack of interest or concern, a feeling of not caring Example: His indifference towards the issue was evident in his lack of action.

7. Low-energy - (adj.) lacking vigor, enthusiasm, or vitality Example: After a long day at work, I usually feel low-energy and just want to relax.

8. Flat - (adj.) lacking excitement or variation, dull or uninteresting Example: The party turned out to be quite flat, with no entertainment or engaging activities.

9. Agitated - (adj.) feeling restless, anxious, or unsettled Example: He became agitated waiting for the delayed train.

10. Restless - (adj.) unable to rest or relax, constantly moving or fidgeting Example: She felt restless during the long flight and couldn't sleep.

B.

1. Distinct - (adj.) clearly different or separate from others Example: The five types of boredom have distinct characteristics.

2. Calibrating - (adj.) adjusting or fine-tuning to achieve a desired result or state Example: The calibrating type of boredom involves seeking balance or adjustment.

3. Searching - (adj.) characterized by actively seeking or looking for something Example: The searching type of boredom involves a desire for stimulation or engagement.

4. Reactant - (adj.) characterized by strong emotional response or resistance to being bored Example: The reactant type of boredom involves high arousal and negative emotions.

5. Apathetic - (adj.) showing or feeling lack of interest, enthusiasm, or concern Example: The apathetic type of boredom involves feeling detached and disinterested.

6. Arousal - (n.) a state of heightened physiological or mental alertness or activation Example: The horror movie caused a high level of arousal among the audience.

7. Positive - (adj.) characterized by optimism, favorability, or desirable qualities Example: She had a positive attitude towards the new project.

8. Negative - (adj.) characterized by pessimism, unfavorability, or undesirable qualities Example: The feedback had a negative impact on his self-esteem.

9. Damaging - (adj.) causing harm or negative effects Example: The damaging effects of pollution on the environment are evident.

10. Relaxed - (adj.) feeling calm, at ease, or free from tension or stress Example: She took a warm bath to help her feel relaxed after a long day.

C.

1. Psychologist - (n.) an expert in the study of the human mind and behavior Example: The psychologist helped him work through his anxiety.

2. Creative - (adj.) involving imagination, originality, or artistic expression Example: The artist had a creative approach to painting.

3. Afraid - (adj.) feeling fear or apprehension Example: He was afraid of heights and avoided tall buildings.

4. Passive - (adj.) not actively participating or involved, inactive Example: She took a passive role in the group project and let others lead.

5. Wander - (v.) to move aimlessly or without a clear destination Example: During the hike, we decided to wander through the forest.

6. Overstimulation - (n.) excessive or overwhelming stimulation or sensory input Example: The loud music and flashing lights caused overstimulation in the nightclub.

7. Meaning - (n.) significance, purpose, or value Example: Finding meaning in life can contribute to overall happiness.

8. Phones - (n.) mobile devices used for communication, often referring to smartphones Example: People are increasingly dependent on their phones for various activities.

9. Motivate - (v.) to provide a reason or incentive to act or do something Example: The coach's pep talk motivated the team to give their best performance.

10. Engage - (v.) to participate or become involved in an activity or conversation Example: He tried to engage the audience by asking thought-provoking questions.

D.

1. Convincing - (adj.) persuading or making someone believe something Example: His argument was so convincing that everyone agreed with him.

2. Undesirable - (adj.) not wanted, unpleasant, or unfavorable Example: The rainy weather made outdoor activities undesirable.

3. Adaptive - (adj.) able to adjust or adapt to changing circumstances or conditions Example: The ability to learn new skills is adaptive in today's fast-paced world.

4. Fester - (v.) to become worse or more intense if ignored or left untreated Example: If you don't address the issue, it will fester and cause more problems.

5. Attention - (n.) the act or state of focusing or directing one's mind towards something Example: She couldn't pay attention during the boring lecture.

6. Inability - (n.) the state of being unable to do something Example: His inability to swim made him anxious around water.

7. Focus - (v.) to concentrate attention or effort on a particular task or objective Example: She needed to focus on studying for her upcoming exam.

8. Irritability - (n.) a tendency to become easily annoyed or angered Example: Lack of sleep can lead to increased irritability.

9. Engage - (v.) to participate or become involved in an activity or conversation Example: The teacher tried to engage the students in a discussion.

10. Toxic - (adj.) harmful or poisonous, having a detrimental effect Example: The toxic relationship

E.

1. Personality - (n.) the combination of characteristics and qualities that form an individual's distinctive character Example: Her outgoing and friendly personality made her popular among her peers.

2. Boredom proneness - (n.) the tendency or likelihood to experience boredom frequently Example: People with high boredom proneness may struggle to stay engaged in tasks.

3. Motivated - (adj.) having a strong desire or drive to achieve or accomplish something Example: She was highly motivated to succeed in her career.

4. Curiosity - (n.) a strong desire to know or learn something Example: Her curiosity led her to explore new subjects and ideas.

5. Threshold - (n.) the point at which a stimulus or experience becomes noticeable or has an effect Example: He has a high boredom threshold and rarely gets bored.

6. Detrimental - (adj.) causing harm or damage, having a negative impact Example: Lack of exercise can be detrimental to one's health.

7. Prospects - (n.) chances or possibilities for future success or advancement Example: She had promising career prospects after graduating from university.

8. Alleviate - (v.) to reduce or lessen the intensity or severity of something Example: Taking a break can help alleviate feelings of stress or boredom.

9. Approach - (v.) to come near or closer to something or someone Example: He decided to approach the problem from a different angle.

10. Distraction - (n.) something that diverts attention or prevents concentration on a task Example: Social media can be a major distraction when trying to study or work.

F.

1. Speculates - (v.) makes assumptions or guesses without complete evidence Example: The scientist speculates that the new treatment could be effective.

2. Over-connected - (adj.) excessively connected or linked, often referring to constant access to technology or communication devices Example: Our over-connected lifestyles can lead to feelings of overwhelm and information overload.

3. Meaningful - (adj.) having significance or purpose, conveying a sense of importance or value Example: Engaging in meaningful activities can contribute to a sense of fulfillment.

4. Phones - (n.) mobile devices used for communication, often referring to smartphones Example: People are increasingly dependent on their phones for various activities.

5. Motivate - (v.) to provide a reason or incentive to act or do something Example: The coach's pep talk motivated the team to give their best performance.

6. Engage - (v.) to participate or become involved in an activity or conversation Example: He tried to engage the audience by asking thought-provoking questions.

7. Toxic - (adj.) harmful or poisonous, having a detrimental effect Example: The toxic relationship was detrimental to her mental health.

8. Approach - (v.) to come near or closer to something or someone Example: He decided to approach the problem from a different angle.

9. Alleviate - (v.) to reduce or lessen the intensity or severity of something Example: Taking a break can help alleviate feelings of stress or boredom.

10. Distraction - (n.) something that diverts attention or prevents concentration on a task Example: Social media can be a major distraction when trying to study or work.

11. Overstimulation - (n.) excessive or overwhelming stimulation or sensory input Example: The loud music and flashing lights caused overstimulation in the nightclub.

12. Meaning - (n.) significance, purpose, or value Example: Finding meaning in life can contribute to overall happiness.

13. Motivate - (v.) to provide a reason or incentive to act or do something Example: The coach's pep talk motivated the team to give their best performance.

14. Engage - (v.) to participate or become involved in an activity or conversation Example: He tried to engage the audience by asking thought-provoking questions.

15. Toxic - (adj.) harmful or poisonous, having a detrimental effect Example: The toxic relationship was detrimental to her mental health.

16. Approach - (v.) to come near or closer to something or someone Example: He decided to approach the problem from a different angle.

17. Alleviate - (v.) to reduce or lessen the intensity or severity of something Example: Taking a break can help alleviate feelings of stress or boredom.

18. Distraction - (n.) something that diverts attention or prevents concentration on a task Example: Social media can be a major distraction when trying to study or work.

19. Overstimulation - (n.) excessive or overwhelming stimulation or sensory input Example: The loud music and flashing lights caused overstimulation in the nightclub.

20. Meaning - (n.) significance, purpose, or value Example: Finding meaning in life can contribute to overall happiness.

Passage-3

Artificial Artists

1. Computer programs - (n.) sets of instructions or code that enable computers to perform specific tasks or functions Example: The advancement of computer programs has led to increased automation in various industries.

2. Creative talents - (n.) abilities or skills related to artistic expression, imagination, or innovation Example: The artist showcased his creative talents through his unique sculptures.

3. Enraptured - (adj.) deeply captivated or delighted Example: The audience was enraptured by the mesmerizing performance.

4. Tricked - (v.) deceived or fooled someone into believing something false Example: The magician tricked the audience with his impressive sleight of hand.

5. Sophisticated - (adj.) complex, advanced, or refined in terms of knowledge, technology, or design Example: The new smartphone features sophisticated facial recognition technology.

6. Break down - (v.) to analyze or divide something into smaller parts to understand its components or processes Example: Scientists are trying to break down the human genome to understand genetic variations.

7. Computer code - (n.) instructions or programming language used to communicate with computers and create software Example: Software developers write computer code to build applications and websites.

8. Human creativity - (n.) the ability of humans to generate original ideas, concepts, or artistic expressions Example: Human creativity has led to remarkable advancements in various fields, including art, literature, and technology.

9. Core - (n.) the central or essential part of something Example: The core of the issue lies in the lack of communication between team members.

10. Scares - (v.) frightens or causes fear or concern Example: The horror movie scares me, but I still enjoy watching it.

11. Special - (adj.) unique, exceptional, or distinct from others Example: Her artistic talent is something special that sets her apart from other painters.

12. Tool - (n.) a device or instrument used to perform a specific task Example: The artist used various brushes and palettes as tools to create her masterpiece.

13. Direction - (n.) guidance or instructions on how to proceed or accomplish something Example: The coach provided direction to the players on the field.

14. Concepts - (n.) abstract ideas or mental representations of something Example: The artist's work often explores complex philosophical concepts.

15. Imagination - (n.) the faculty or ability to create or visualize mental images or ideas Example: Children have vivid imaginations and can create fantastical stories.

16. Original works - (n.) creations or pieces of art that are unique and not copied or imitated Example: The gallery displayed a collection of original works by emerging artists.

17. Mechanical - (adj.) relating to machines or the operation of machinery Example: The robot's movements were precise and mechanical.

18. Double standards - (n.) a set of principles or rules applied differently to different people or situations Example: It's unfair to have double standards when it comes to gender equality.

19. Bug - (n.) an error or flaw in computer software that causes unexpected behavior Example: The programmer fixed the bug that was causing the program to crash.

20. Glitch - (n.) a temporary malfunction or error in a system or technology Example: The website experienced a glitch that prevented users from logging in.

21. Replicas - (n.) copies or reproductions of something, often identical or very similar to the original Example: The museum showcased historical artifacts and their replicas for educational purposes.

22. Objective - (adj.) unbiased, based on facts or evidence rather than personal opinions or feelings Example: The journalist presented the news in an objective manner, providing all sides of the story.

23. Prejudice - (n.) preconceived opinions or judgments formed without sufficient knowledge or reason Example: Prejudice can lead to discrimination and unfair treatment of certain groups.

24. Stems from - (v.) originates or arises from a particular source or cause Example: The argument stems from a difference in values and beliefs.

25. Essence - (n.) the fundamental nature or quality of something Example: The essence of her artwork captured the beauty of nature.

26. Prospect - (n.) the possibility or likelihood of future success, achievement, or opportunity Example: He had high prospects of getting a promotion at work due to his exceptional performance.

27. Meaningful - (adj.) significant, purposeful, or conveying a sense of depth or importance Example: The artist's paintings had a profound and meaningful impact on viewers.

28. Complex - (adj.) intricate, involving multiple interconnected elements or factors Example: The mathematician solved a complex equation using advanced algorithms.

29. Depth - (n.) the quality of having intellectual or emotional complexity and richness Example: The novel explores the depth of human emotions and relationships.

30. Inspiration - (n.) a stimulus or source of creative ideas or motivation Example: Nature often serves as an inspiration for artists, poets, and writers.

1. Social networks - (n.) online platforms or websites that facilitate social interactions and connections between individuals Example: Facebook and Twitter are popular social networks where people can share updates and connect with friends.

2. Themes - (n.) recurring or central ideas or topics in a work of art, literature, or culture Example: The novel explores various themes such as love, identity, and social injustice.

3. Fascinated - (adj.) greatly interested or captivated by something Example: She was fascinated by astronomy and spent hours stargazing.

4. Originality - (n.) the quality of being new, unique, or inventive Example: The artist's work stood out due to its originality and fresh perspective.

5. Subtle - (adj.) not obvious or easily noticeable, requiring attention to perceive or understand Example: The painting had subtle shades of color that added depth to the artwork.

6. Compositions - (n.) musical pieces or works created through the arrangement of musical elements Example: Beethoven's symphonies are considered masterful compositions of classical music.

7. Classical composers - (n.) musicians who wrote music in the classical music era, typically referring to composers like Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven Example: Beethoven is one of the most influential classical composers in history.

8. Revered - (adj.) highly respected, admired, or regarded with deep reverence Example: The artist was revered for his innovative techniques and profound insights.

9. Pseudoscience - (n.) a belief or practice that is presented as scientific but lacks proper evidence or scientific methodology Example: Astrology is often criticized as pseudoscience due to its lack of empirical support.

10. Explanation - (n.) a statement or clarification that makes something more understandable or comprehensible Example: The teacher provided a detailed explanation of the scientific concept to the students.

11. Replicas - (n.) copies or reproductions of something, often identical or very similar to the original Example: The museum showcased historical artifacts and their replicas for educational purposes.

12. Controversy - (n.) a disagreement or debate marked by opposing views or strong emotions Example: The decision to demolish the historic building sparked controversy among preservationists.

13. Destroyed - (v.) completely ruined or eliminated Example: The fire destroyed the entire building, leaving only ashes behind.

14. Guess - (v.) to form an opinion or estimate without sufficient evidence or knowledge Example: She could only guess the correct answer to the challenging question.

15. Liked - (v.) found something enjoyable or appealing Example: He liked the movie so much that he watched it multiple times.

16. Objective - (adj.) unbiased, based on facts or evidence rather than personal opinions or feelings Example: The journalist presented the news in an objective manner, providing all sides of the story.

17. Subjective - (adj.) influenced by personal opinions, biases, or feelings rather than facts Example: Art appreciation is often subjective, as people have different interpretations and preferences.

18. Essential - (adj.) absolutely necessary, fundamental, or crucial Example: Good communication skills are essential for building strong relationships.

19. Explore - (v.) to investigate or examine something in detail to discover new information or insights Example: The scientist planned to explore the effects of climate change on marine ecosystems.

20. Complexity - (n.) the state of being intricate, involved, or consisting of interconnected elements Example: The complexity of the human brain is still not fully understood by scientists.

Test-2

Passage-1

Bringing Cinnamon to Europe

1. Cinnamon - (n.) a sweet and aromatic spice derived from the inner bark of trees belonging to the Cinnamomum genus Example: She added a pinch of cinnamon to her morning coffee for a warm and spicy flavor.

2. Condiment - (n.) a substance, such as a spice or sauce, that is added to food to enhance its flavor Example: Mustard and ketchup are commonly used as condiments for hamburgers and hot dogs.

3. Middle Ages - (n.) a historical period between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Renaissance, roughly from the 5th to the 15th century Example: Knights and castles are often associated with the Middle Ages.

4. Elite - (adj.) referring to a select group of people who are considered superior or have high social status Example: The exclusive club is open only to the elite members of society.

5. Monopoly - (n.) the exclusive control or possession of a particular commodity or market by a single company or group Example: The telecommunications company had a monopoly over the internet service in the region.

6. Profit - (n.) the financial gain or benefit obtained from a business transaction or investment Example: The company reported a significant increase in profits for the fiscal year.

7. Spice trade - (n.) the buying, selling, and exchange of various spices, often involving long-distance commerce Example: The spice trade played a crucial role in shaping global economic and cultural interactions.

8. High profits - (n.) significant financial gains or earnings Example: The successful business venture resulted in high profits for the investors.

9. Portuguese - (adj.) relating to or originating from Portugal Example: The Portuguese explorer sailed across the Atlantic Ocean in search of new trade routes.

10. Traders - (n.) individuals or companies engaged in buying and selling goods or services Example: The street market was filled with various traders selling fresh produce and handmade crafts.

11. Allied - (adj.) joined together in a cooperative or mutually beneficial relationship Example: The two countries formed an allied alliance to strengthen their military and economic ties.

12. Harvesting - (n.) the process of gathering crops or resources from the land Example: Farmers were busy harvesting wheat during the autumn season.

13. Enslaved - (v.) forced into slavery or servitude Example: Many Africans were enslaved and transported to the Americas during the transatlantic slave trade.

14. Monopoly - (n.) the exclusive control or possession of a particular commodity or market by a single company or group Example: The telecommunications company had a monopoly over the internet service in the region.

15. Lure - (v.) to attract or entice someone or something Example: The advertisement used attractive visuals to lure customers to buy their product.

16. Exhausted - (adj.) depleted or completely used up Example: After hours of intense exercise, she felt exhausted and needed to rest.

17. Diminishing - (adj.) decreasing in size, importance, or quantity Example: The diminishing daylight indicated the approach of winter.

18. Supplemented - (v.) added something extra in order to enhance or complete it Example: She supplemented her diet with vitamins and minerals to ensure proper nutrition.

19. Displaced - (v.) forcibly removed or replaced from a position or location Example: The construction of the new highway displaced several families from their homes.

20. Monopoly - (n.) the exclusive control or possession of a particular commodity or market by a single company or group Example: The telecommunications company had a monopoly over the internet service in the region.

21. Acceptable - (adj.) satisfactory or suitable within the limits of what is considered reasonable or appropriate Example: The customer found the quality of the product to be acceptable for its price.

22. Indian Ocean - (n.) the third-largest ocean in the world, located between Africa, Asia, and Australia Example: The Indian Ocean is known for its rich marine biodiversity and trade routes.

23. Superseded - (v.) replaced or succeeded by something superior or more advanced Example: Vinyl records were superseded by CDs and later digital streaming services.

24. Rise - (n.) an increase or upward movement in something Example: The rise in global temperatures is a concerning issue due to climate change.

25. Trade - (n.) the buying, selling, or exchange of goods and services Example: International trade plays a vital role in global economic growth and development.

1. Cultivation - (n.) the act of preparing and nurturing land for the growth of plants or crops Example: The farmers practiced sustainable cultivation methods to preserve the fertility of the soil.

2. Native - (adj.) originating from a particular place or region Example: The kangaroo is a native species of Australia.

3. Tribute - (n.) a payment, gift, or act of respect given to show honor or allegiance Example: The village offered a tribute of fruits and grains to the local deity during the harvest festival.

4. Overran - (v.) conquered or invaded by force, overwhelming in numbers or power Example: The army overran the enemy's territory, seizing control of key strategic locations.

5. Expelled - (v.) forced to leave or removed from a place or organization Example: The troublemaker was expelled from school due to his disruptive behavior.

6. Hold - (n.) control or possession of something Example: The company has a strong hold on the market, dominating its competitors.

7. Alter - (v.) to change or modify something Example: She decided to alter her hairstyle by cutting her long hair into a short bob.

8. Harshly - (adv.) in a severe, strict, or unkind manner Example: The teacher scolded the student harshly for not completing the assigned homework.

9. Diminishing - (adj.) decreasing in size, importance, or quantity Example: The diminishing daylight indicated the approach of winter.

10. Systematic - (adj.) carried out according to a plan or method, organized and consistent Example: The team followed a systematic approach to solve complex problems.

11. Supplement - (v.) to add something extra to enhance or complete it Example: She decided to supplement her diet with additional vitamins and minerals.

12. English - (adj.) relating to or originating from England Example: William Shakespeare is an English playwright and poet.

13. Control - (n.) the power or authority to manage or direct something Example: The government has control over the country's economic policies.

14. Monopoly - (n.) the exclusive control or possession of a particular commodity or market by a single company or group Example: The telecommunications company had a monopoly over the internet service in the region.

15. Displacing - (v.) causing someone or something to move from their original position or role Example: The construction of the new highway is displacing several businesses in the area.

16. Lavish - (adj.) characterized by extravagance or luxury Example: The millionaire lived a lavish lifestyle, owning multiple mansions and luxury cars.

17. Grade - (n.) a level or rank in a scale of measurement or quality Example: The students received a good grade on their final exams.

18. Economic - (adj.) relating to the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services Example: The government implemented new economic policies to stimulate job growth.

19. Potential - (n.) the possibility or likelihood of something happening or developing in the future Example: The young athlete has great potential to become a professional in his sport.

20. Trade - (n.) the buying, selling, or exchange of goods and services Example: International trade plays a vital role in global economic growth and development.

21. Coffee - (n.) a beverage made from roasted coffee beans, often consumed for its stimulating effects Example: She enjoys a cup of freshly brewed coffee in the morning to start her day.

22. Tea - (n.) a hot or cold beverage made by infusing dried leaves of the tea plant in hot water Example: The British have a strong tradition of drinking tea in the afternoon.

23. Chocolate - (n.) a sweet, typically brown food made from roasted and ground cacao beans Example: She treated herself to a bar of dark chocolate as a dessert.

24. Sugar - (n.) a sweet crystalline substance obtained from various plants, used as a sweetener Example: She added a teaspoon of sugar to her tea to enhance its taste.

25. Spice - (n.) a substance used to enhance the flavor of food, often derived from plants or seeds Example: Cumin is a popular spice used in many Indian and Middle Eastern dishes.

Oxytocin

1. Volunteers - (n.) individuals who willingly offer themselves for a particular purpose or task Example: The organization relies on volunteers to help with community events and initiatives.

2. Competitive - (adj.) characterized by or involving competition, striving to outperform others Example: The athletes trained rigorously for the upcoming competitive race.

3. Envy - (n.) a feeling of discontent or resentment caused by desiring what someone else possesses Example: She couldn't help but feel a pang of envy when she saw her friend's new car.

4. Disposition - (n.) a person's natural qualities of mind and character; temperament Example: He has a friendly and positive disposition that makes him easy to get along with.

5. Adept - (adj.) highly skilled or proficient in a particular activity or subject Example: She is an adept pianist who can play complex pieces with ease.

6. Cooperation - (n.) the process of working together towards a common goal or objective Example: The success of the project relied on the cooperation of all team members.

7. Complete strangers - (phrase) people who are entirely unknown to one another Example: They struck up a conversation with complete strangers while waiting for the bus.

8. Favouritism - (n.) the practice of showing unfair preference or bias towards a particular person or group Example: The teacher was accused of favouritism for always giving special treatment to certain students.

9. Biases - (n.) preconceived opinions or prejudices that influence one's judgment or decision-making Example: It's important to be aware of our own biases and strive for unbiased thinking.

10. Nuanced - (adj.) characterized by subtle distinctions, complexity, or variations Example: The novel offers a nuanced portrayal of the protagonist's inner struggles.

11. Propelling - (v.) driving or moving forward; causing to make progress or advance Example: Their shared vision and determination were propelling the team towards success.

12. Hypotheses - (n.) tentative explanations or assumptions that are subject to further testing and investigation Example: The scientists developed several hypotheses to explain the observed phenomenon.

13. Co-opted - (v.) to take or acquire (something) for one's own use, often by appropriating or adapting it Example: The artist co-opted traditional folk motifs and incorporated them into her modern paintings.

14. Amygdala - (n.) a small almond-shaped structure in the brain associated with processing emotions and emotional responses Example: The amygdala plays a key role in the brain's fear and anxiety response.

15. Manifest - (v.) to become apparent or evident; to show or demonstrate Example: Her talent for singing manifested itself at an early age.

Passage-2

Making the most of trends

1. Jeopardize - (v.) to put at risk or in danger Example: Ignoring market trends could jeopardize a company's competitiveness and future success.

2. Transform - (v.) to change or alter completely, often in a significant or fundamental way Example: The introduction of smartphones transformed the way people communicate and access information.

3. Profit opportunities - (phrase) chances or possibilities for making financial gains or earning profits Example: By identifying and capitalizing on emerging market trends, businesses can seize profit opportunities ahead of their competitors.

4. Peripheral - (adj.) relating to something that is of secondary importance or not directly related to the main focus Example: Managers may overlook peripheral trends that seem unrelated to their core markets, but these trends can still have significant impacts.

5. Adept - (adj.) highly skilled, proficient, or knowledgeable in a particular area Example: Developing a team of adept professionals in market research and product development is crucial for analyzing and exploiting trends effectively.

6. Value propositions - (n.) the unique benefits or advantages that a product or service offers to customers Example: Companies need to create compelling value propositions that align with customers' aspirations and address their evolving needs.

7. Infuse - (v.) to incorporate or introduce something into something else to enhance or improve it Example: The company decided to infuse its existing product line with eco-friendly features to appeal to environmentally conscious consumers.

8. Augment - (v.) to increase or enhance something by adding extra or additional elements Example: The new software update augments the functionality of the existing program, providing users with more advanced features.

9. Engender - (v.) to cause or bring about a particular situation, condition, or response Example: Market trends can engender new consumer behaviors and preferences, shaping the demand for products and services.

10. Transcend - (v.) to go beyond the limits or boundaries of something; to surpass or exceed Example: By embracing digital technologies, the company was able to transcend its traditional market and enter new digital spaces.

11. Counteract - (v.) to act against or neutralize the effects of something; to offset or counterbalance Example: The company developed a campaign to counteract negative perceptions of its brand by emphasizing its commitment to social responsibility.

12. Reaffirm - (v.) to confirm or strengthen the validity or importance of something; to restate or reassert Example: The company's CEO gave a speech to reaffirm the company's commitment to quality and customer satisfaction.

13. Pedometer - (n.) a device that counts the number of steps a person takes, typically worn or carried during physical activity Example: The fitness tracker includes a built-in pedometer to track the user's daily steps and encourage physical activity.

14. Disparity - (n.) a significant difference or inequality between two or more things Example: The growing disparity between consumer expectations and the company's offerings called for innovative solutions to bridge the gap.

15. Core values - (n.) fundamental beliefs, principles, or ideals that define the essence and identity of a person, organization, or category Example: The company's core values of integrity, sustainability, and customer-centricity guide its business decisions and operations.

1. Aspirations - (n.) strong desires or ambitions; goals or objectives that one hopes to achieve Example: Understanding consumers' aspirations is essential for developing products and services that meet their needs and aspirations.

2. Attitudes - (n.) opinions, beliefs, or dispositions towards something; the way one thinks or feels about a particular subject Example: Consumer attitudes towards sustainability and eco-consciousness have significantly influenced purchasing decisions in recent years.

3. Behavior - (n.) the way in which a person or group acts or conducts themselves; observable actions or responses Example: The study examined consumer behavior in response to various marketing stimuli and identified patterns and trends.

4. Reputation - (n.) the general opinion or perception that others have about a person, organization, or brand; the overall assessment of credibility, trustworthiness, and quality Example: Nike has built a strong reputation for high-performance athletic footwear and apparel over the years.

5. Engagement - (n.) the level of involvement, interest, or interaction between individuals or between individuals and a product, brand, or activity Example: The company strives to increase customer engagement by providing personalized experiences and interactive features.

6. Desires - (n.) strong wants or cravings; things that one wishes or longs for Example: The company aims to develop products that fulfill consumers' desires for convenience, efficiency, and sustainability.

7. Economic downturn - (n.) a period of decline or reduced economic activity, typically characterized by falling GDP, decreased consumer spending, and rising unemployment Example: The global financial crisis in 2008 led to an economic downturn that affected various industries and consumer behaviors.

8. Opulence - (n.) great wealth, luxury, or abundance; an extravagant or lavish quality Example: The brand was associated with opulence and luxury, appealing to affluent consumers who valued exclusivity.

9. Cheapening - (v.) reducing the value, quality, or perception of something by making it appear less valuable or inferior Example: Lowering prices could risk cheapening the brand's image and undermine its position in the luxury market.

10. Renewal - (n.) the act or process of restoring, revitalizing, or making something new or fresh again Example: The company's innovative approach brought renewal to the brand, attracting a new generation of consumers.

11. Amateur athletes - (n.) individuals who participate in sports or athletic activities for personal enjoyment or recreation, rather than as professionals Example: Nike's products cater to both professional athletes and amateur athletes who pursue sports as a hobby or for fitness.

12. Engaging - (adj.) capturing and holding one's attention or interest; interesting, compelling, or captivating Example: The digital sports kit offered an engaging experience that combined technology with athletic performance.

13. Association - (n.) a connection or link between two or more things; the act of connecting or relating one thing to another Example: The ME2 video game aimed to create positive associations with physical play, promoting active and healthy lifestyles.

14. Exercise - (n.) physical activity performed to improve health, fitness, or strength; movement or exertion of the body Example: The ME2 game encouraged children to combine video gaming with physical exercise to promote an active lifestyle.

15. Perceived - (adj.) understood or interpreted in a certain way; how something is viewed or believed to be Example: Consumer behavior is influenced not only by the actual quality of a product but also by the perceived quality.

Passage-3

The Coconut Palm

1. Exotic - (adj.) originating or characteristic of a distant foreign country; unusual, striking, or intriguing due to its foreignness Example: Coconuts were considered exotic in the western world, as they were not commonly found in those regions.

2. Mention - (v.) refer to or briefly speak about something; make a statement or observation about something Example: The travel writings of Sir John Mandeville mention the presence of coconuts as "great Nuts of India."

3. Timber - (n.) wood that is used for construction, particularly for building houses and structures Example: The smooth, slender trunk of the coconut palm is an important source of timber for building houses and furniture.

4. Rosette - (n.) a round or circular arrangement of leaves or other objects that resembles a rose Example: At the top of the coconut palm's trunk, there is a rosette of leaves that can be up to six meters long.

5. Tapped - (v.) extract or obtain a substance, such as sap or liquid, by making a small hole or opening Example: The flower stems of coconut palms can be tapped to collect sap, which can be used to produce a drink or sugar.

6. Fruit - (n.) the mature ovary of a flowering plant, typically containing seeds; the edible or reproductive part of a plant Example: Coconuts are considered fruits and contain the nutrients needed for the development of the coconut seed.

7. Fibrous - (adj.) consisting of or characterized by fibers; having a texture or composition that is thread-like or stringy Example: The middle layer of the coconut fruit is fibrous and is used to produce coconut fiber, known as "coir."

8. Endosperm - (n.) the tissue inside a seed that provides nourishment to the developing embryo; a source of stored nutrients Example: The endosperm of the coconut seed gradually solidifies to form the edible flesh or meat of the coconut.

9. Viability - (n.) the ability of something to survive and remain capable of growing or developing Example: Coconuts can remain viable for a certain period at sea, but after about 110 days, they are no longer able to germinate.

10. Germinate - (v.) begin to grow and develop into a new plant or organism; start the process of growth Example: Coconut seeds are able to germinate and root even when cast onto desert island shores with little soil.

11. Academic - (adj.) relating to education, scholarship, or the pursuit of knowledge; pertaining to institutions of learning Example: The origins of coconuts have been a subject of academic debate for centuries.

12. Diametrically opposed - (adj.) completely or directly opposite or contrary to each other; having completely opposite viewpoints or positions Example: Two diametrically opposed theories on the origin of coconuts have been proposed, with one suggesting an Asian origin and the other suggesting a native American origin.

13. Indigenous - (adj.) native or originating from a particular place or region; naturally occurring or living in a specific area Example: There is no evidence to suggest that coconuts are indigenous to America, despite the presence of coconut relatives in the region.

14. Dispersed - (v.) spread or distribute over a wide area; scatter or spread out Example: The intriguing suggestion is that coconuts originated on coral islands in the Pacific and were dispersed from there.

Test-3

Passage-1

1. Clichés - (n.) overused phrases or ideas that have lost their originality or impact Example: Images of palm-fringed tropical beaches are considered clichés in the western world.

2. Opulence - (n.) great wealth or luxuriousness; abundance of valuable resources or possessions Example: The Coach brand was associated with opulence and luxury for many years.

3. Vibrant - (adj.) full of energy, enthusiasm, and activity; bright and striking in color Example: The Poppy handbags launched by Coach were in vibrant colors, appealing to a younger demographic.

4. Augment - (v.) to make something greater in size, extent, or quantity; to enhance or supplement Example: Coach's strategy was to augment their existing product line with the Poppy range to address the changing consumer needs.

5. Avert - (v.) to prevent or ward off something undesirable or harmful; to avoid or turn away from Example: Coach managed to avert an across-the-board price cut by introducing the lower-priced Poppy handbags.

6. Counteract - (v.) to act against something in order to reduce or neutralize its effect; to offset or counterbalance Example: The ME2 video game was created to counteract the negative impacts associated with digital gaming devices.

7. Desert island - (n.) a remote or uninhabited island, often used metaphorically to refer to a place of isolation or seclusion Example: Coconut seeds can germinate and grow on desert island shores, with little soil or resources.

8. Cast - (v.) to throw or fling something forcefully or with intention; to cause something to be thrown or spread Example: Coconuts can be cast onto desert island shores by ocean currents, allowing them to potentially grow and root.

9. Timely - (adj.) done or occurring at a favorable or appropriate time; well-timed or opportune Example: The company's innovations were timely, responding to the changing consumer needs and market trends.

10. Intriguing - (adj.) arousing curiosity or interest; fascinating or captivating Example: The suggestion that coconuts originated on coral islands in the Pacific is intriguing and warrants further investigation.

11. Diversity - (n.) the state or quality of being diverse or varied; the range of different forms or types Example: Asia exhibits a high level of coconut diversity with various species and uses of the fruit.

12. Relatives - (n.) organisms that belong to the same family or are closely related; similar or connected in nature or character Example: Coconuts have relatives growing in the wild in America, but it is uncertain if they are indigenous to the region.

13. Acquired - (adj.) obtained or gained through one's own efforts or actions; learned or developed over time Example: Glycerine, derived from coconut fat, was acquired strategic importance in Alfred Nobel's invention of dynamite.

14. Migration - (n.) the movement of individuals or groups from one place to another, typically for the purpose of settling in a new location Example: Trade and human migration patterns played a role in the dispersal of coconuts across different regions.

Passage-1

How Baby Talk Gives Infant Brains A Boost

1. Absurd - (adj.) wildly unreasonable, illogical, or inappropriate; contrary to reason or common sense Example: The sometimes absurd sounds of baby talk can be fascinating to linguists studying its impact on language learning.

2. Prioritize - (v.) to determine the order of importance or urgency of tasks, goals, or information Example: Babies raised in bilingual homes show better ability to prioritize information due to early language exposure.

3. Interacted - (v.) engaged in communication or social interaction with someone; exchanged ideas or behaviors Example: The study equipped parents with recording devices to observe how they interacted with their children throughout the day.

4. Fundamental - (adj.) forming an essential or basic part; foundational or central Example: Dads didn't raise their pitch or fundamental frequency when talking to their kids, as observed in the study.

5. Repertoire - (n.) a stock of plays, dances, or pieces that a company or performer is prepared to perform; a range or collection of skills or abilities Example: The bridge hypothesis suggests that fathers provide children with a wider repertoire of speech styles and contexts.

6. Boosted - (v.) increased or improved something, especially significantly or dramatically Example: The study found that frequent baby talk boosted the vocabulary development of children, regardless of socioeconomic status.

7. Context - (n.) the circumstances or setting in which something occurs; the background or environment that influences the meaning or interpretation of something Example: The study highlighted that using baby talk in a one-on-one context had a greater impact on babies' language development.

8. Approximates - (v.) comes close to matching or resembling something, but not exactly; makes a similar or near approximation Example: The reactions of babies, like smiling or lip moving, approximate the sound-making of other infants.

9. Theorizes - (v.) suggests or develops a theory or hypothesis about something; proposes an explanation or interpretation based on evidence or reasoning Example: The researchers theorize that infants' attraction to other infant sounds may help initiate the learning process of speech.

10. Motor - (adj.) relating to movement or muscular activity; involving or controlling the muscles or body movements Example: The study found activation in the motor areas of the brain when infants were listening to speech sounds.

11. Scanner - (n.) a device or machine used to scan or examine something, typically by capturing images or data Example: The infants were placed in a brain-activation scanner to record activity while they listened to speech sounds.

12. Significant - (adj.) important; having a noticeable or meaningful effect or influence Example: The finding of activation in motor areas of the brain is significant as it indicates the engagement of the baby brain in language development.

13. Uncovered - (v.) revealed or discovered something previously unknown, hidden, or secret Example: The study may have uncovered a process by which babies distinguish between their native language and other languages.

1. Profound - (adj.) having deep meaning or significance; intense or far-reaching Example: Managers often fail to recognize the profound ways that trends influence consumer behavior.

2. Exotic - (adj.) foreign, unfamiliar, or strikingly different from what is ordinary or customary Example: Coconuts have always been seen as exotic in the western world.

3. Voyagers - (n.) travelers or explorers who embark on long journeys, especially by sea Example: Coconuts are considered great maritime voyagers as their ability to float in water allows them to disperse to new locations.

4. Viability - (n.) the ability to survive, function, or be successful; feasibility or practicality Example: Coconuts can remain viable and capable of germination for about 110 days at sea.

5. Indigenous - (adj.) originating or occurring naturally in a particular place; native to a specific region or environment Example: There is no evidence that coconuts are indigenous to America, but they have close relatives growing there.

6. Replicate - (v.) to reproduce or recreate something exactly; to duplicate or copy Example: The researchers used a special synthesizing device to replicate repeating vowel sounds made by adults and babies.

7. Engagement - (n.) active participation or involvement in an activity or process; emotional or intellectual commitment Example: Listening to baby talk prompts infant brains to start practicing language skills, indicating their engagement in language development.

8. Recognition - (n.) the identification or acknowledgment of something as valid, true, or significant; the act of realizing or understanding Example: The study found that older infants worked harder at the motor activations of non-native sounds, suggesting recognition of differences between languages.

9. Babble - (v.) to produce meaningless or unintelligible sounds, typically in an infant or toddler; to vocalize incoherently Example: Babies who were exposed to more baby talk began to babble more, which later boosted their vocabulary.

10. Synthesize - (v.) to combine or blend components or elements to form a coherent whole; to create or produce by synthesis Example: The synthesizing device mimicked sounds made by adults and babies, allowing the researchers to study the impact of auditory cues.

11. Hypothesis - (n.) a proposed explanation or educated guess based on limited evidence or preliminary observations; a theory that requires further testing or verification Example: The bridge hypothesis suggests that fathers use different speech to provide children with a bridge between familial and public speech.

12. Cliché - (n.) a phrase, expression, or idea that has been overused to the point of losing its originality or impact; a trite or predictable remark or situation Example: Images of palm-fringed tropical beaches have become clichés used to sell various products and evoke a sense of romance or relaxation.

Passage-3

Whatever Happened To The Harappan Civilisation?

1. Harappan Civilisation - (n.) an ancient Bronze Age society that flourished in Pakistan and India 5,000 years ago Example: The Harappan Civilisation built sophisticated cities and engaged in international trade.

2. Megacities - (n.) large and highly populated cities Example: The Harappan Civilisation constructed impressive megacities.

3. Depictions - (n.) representations or portrayals of something or someone Example: The Harappan Civilisation left few depictions of themselves.

4. Archaeological evidence - (n.) physical remains and artifacts that provide insight into past cultures and civilizations Example: There is archaeological evidence to study the rise of the Harappan Civilisation.

5. Fall - (n.) the decline or end of something Example: The fall of the Harappan Civilisation remains a mystery.

6. Transformation - (n.) a significant change or alteration Example: Around 2100 BC, a transformation began in the Harappan cities.

7. Water supply - (n.) the provision of water for a particular area or community Example: Some theories suggest that changes in water supply affected the Harappan Civilisation.

8. Agriculture - (n.) the practice of cultivating crops and rearing animals for food and other products Example: The Harappan Civilisation relied on agriculture for sustenance.

9. Resource base - (n.) the available resources on which a society or civilization depends Example: Some believe that the Harappan Civilisation exhausted their resource base.

10. Trading economy - (n.) an economic system based on the exchange of goods and services Example: The Harappan Civilisation had a thriving trading economy.

11. Invasion - (n.) an act of forcefully entering and taking over a place or territory Example: The Harappan Civilisation may have succumbed to invasion and conflict.

12. Climate change - (n.) long-term shifts or alterations in the Earth's climate patterns Example: Some theories propose that climate change impacted the Harappan Civilisation.

13. Environmental change - (n.) alterations in the natural surroundings or ecosystem Example: Environmental change could have affected food and water availability.

14. Solid evidence - (n.) concrete and reliable proof or facts Example: Until now, there has been a lack of solid evidence regarding the decline of the Harappan Civilisation.

15. Geographic locations - (n.) specific points or positions on the Earth's surface Example: The geographic locations of ancient settlements were inaccurately recorded.

16. Settlement sites - (n.) areas where people established communities or dwellings Example: The researchers discovered 198 settlement sites previously unknown.

17. Climate history - (n.) the record of past climate conditions and changes Example: The researchers used geochemical analysis to trace the climate history of the region.

18. Drought - (n.) a prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall, resulting in a shortage of water Example: The region experienced a severe drought around 4,100 years ago.

19. Indian summer monsoon - (n.) a weather system that brings heavy rainfall to the Indian subcontinent during summer Example: The Indian summer monsoon played a significant role in the region's climate.

20. Weakening - (n.) the process of becoming less strong or intense Example: The Indian summer monsoon climate weakened for about 200 years.

21. Archaeological records - (n.) documents or information related to past human activities and artifacts Example: The researchers are examining archaeological records to understand ancient societies.

22. Cultivated grains - (n.) grains that are intentionally grown and cultivated by humans Example: The researchers are analyzing cultivated grains from that time period.

23. Water stress - (n.) a condition where water availability is insufficient to meet the needs of a population or crops Example: The researchers are investigating whether crops were grown under extreme conditions of water stress.

24. Pottery - (n.) objects made of clay that are shaped and hardened by heat, often used for storage or decoration Example: The types of pottery used can provide insights into ancient cultures.

25. Material culture - (n.) the physical objects and artifacts created and used by a society Example: The researchers are studying the material culture of the Harappan Civilisation.

26. Distinctive - (adj.) unique, characteristic, or easily recognizable Example: The researchers are examining whether pottery styles were distinctive to specific regions.

27. Interactive networks - (n.) interconnected systems or relationships among different groups or communities Example: The study provides insights into the interactive networks of the Harappan Civilisation.

28. Population - (n.) the total number of people living in a particular area or community Example: Understanding how past societies responded to change can inform population management today.

29. Environmental pressures - (n.) external factors or forces that impact the natural environment Example: Archaeologists investigate how past societies responded to environmental pressures.

30. Water supply management - (n.) the planning and administration of water resources to ensure their sustainable use Example: The study emphasizes the importance of water supply management.

31. Urban and rural development - (n.) the growth and planning of cities and rural areas Example: Archaeological research can inform decisions regarding urban and rural development.

32. Cultural heritage - (n.) the traditions, artifacts, and practices inherited from past generations Example: Preservation of cultural heritage is an important consideration for the future.

1. Archaeologists - (n.) scientists who study human history and prehistory through the excavation and analysis of artifacts, structures, and other physical remains Example: Archaeologists play a crucial role in unraveling the mysteries of ancient civilizations.

2. Rise - (n.) the process of coming into existence or prominence; an upward movement Example: The rise of the Harappan Civilisation marked a period of growth and prosperity.

3. Cities - (n.) large and permanent human settlements characterized by complex social and economic systems Example: The Harappan Civilisation built well-planned cities with advanced infrastructure.

4. Baths - (n.) large structures or facilities used for bathing and personal hygiene Example: The Harappan cities had baths as part of their urban planning.

5. Craft workshops - (n.) spaces where skilled artisans create handmade products Example: The Harappan Civilisation had specialized craft workshops for producing luxury goods.

6. Palaces - (n.) grand and elaborate residences of rulers or high-ranking individuals Example: The Harappan cities featured impressive palaces as symbols of power and authority.

7. Halls - (n.) large rooms or spaces used for public gatherings, ceremonies, or events Example: The Harappan halls served as venues for important social and cultural activities.

8. Blocks - (n.) areas or sections of a city that are demarcated for specific purposes or functions Example: Houses in the Harappan cities were organized in blocks, creating distinct neighborhoods.

9. Main streets - (n.) primary thoroughfares or roads that serve as the main arteries of a city Example: The Harappan cities had wide main streets for easy movement of people and goods.

10. Narrow alleyways - (n.) narrow passages or lanes between buildings Example: The Harappan cities had narrow alleyways connecting different parts of the urban fabric.

11. Wells - (n.) deep holes or shafts dug into the ground to access underground water sources Example: Many houses in the Harappan cities had their own wells for water supply.

12. Drainage systems - (n.) infrastructure designed to remove excess water or waste from an area Example: The Harappan cities had well-planned drainage systems to manage wastewater.

13. Global-scale climate event - (n.) a significant climate event that affects a large geographical area Example: Some believe that a global-scale climate event played a role in the decline of multiple Bronze Age civilizations.

14. Interactive networks - (n.) interconnected systems of communication, trade, or cultural exchange between different regions or groups Example: The Harappan Civilisation likely had interactive networks with other contemporary societies.

15. Proactive - (adj.) taking action in advance to prevent or mitigate potential problems or challenges Example: Learning from the past, we can adopt a proactive approach to addressing environmental and societal issues.

16. Management and administration - (n.) the process of organizing and overseeing the operations of a system or organization Example: Understanding past societies can inform effective management and administration practices today.

17. Balance - (n.) a state of equilibrium or harmony between different elements or factors Example: Striking a balance between urban and rural development is crucial for sustainable growth.

18. Preserving cultural heritage - (v.) protecting and safeguarding the traditions, artifacts, and sites that represent a society's cultural identity Example: The importance of preserving cultural heritage is recognized for maintaining a sense of identity and fostering understanding.

Test-4

Passage-1

Cutty Sark: the fastest sailing ship of all time

1. Technological development - (n.) advancements and progress in technology Example: The nineteenth century in Britain witnessed significant technological development.

2. Wind power - (n.) the use of wind energy to propel a vessel or generate power Example: The major change in shipping during the nineteenth century was the shift from wind power to steam power.

3. Steam power - (n.) the use of steam engines for propulsion or power generation Example: Steam power replaced sail as the dominant form of propulsion in shipping.

4. Wood to iron and steel - (phrase) a transition from using wooden materials to iron and steel in ship construction Example: The nineteenth century saw a shift in shipbuilding from wood to iron and steel.

5. Clippers - (n.) fast sailing vessels with three masts, designed for transporting goods and sometimes passengers Example: Clippers were the fastest commercial sailing vessels during the nineteenth century.

6. World trade - (n.) the exchange of goods and services on a global scale Example: Clippers dominated world trade during the period when they were in operation.

7. Survived - (v.) remained in existence or continued to exist Example: Cutty Sark is the only surviving example of a clipper ship.

8. Figurehead - (n.) a carved decoration, often in the form of a human or an animal, located at the front of a ship Example: Cutty Sark's figurehead depicts a witch from the poem Tam O'Shanter.

9. Construction - (n.) the process of building or assembling something Example: Cutty Sark was constructed in Dumbarton, Scotland, in 1869.

10. Shipping company - (n.) an organization that owns and operates ships for transporting goods or passengers Example: Cutty Sark was owned by a shipping company owned by John Willis.

11. Journey - (n.) a trip or voyage from one place to another Example: Cutty Sark made its maiden journey from London to China in 1870.

12. Tea - (n.) a beverage made from the leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant Example: Cutty Sark transported large quantities of tea from China to London.

13. Rudder - (n.) a vertical blade at the stern of a ship used for steering Example: Cutty Sark's rudder was severely damaged during a stormy voyage.

14. Steam ships - (n.) ships powered by steam engines Example: Steam ships posed a threat to the dominance of clippers due to their increased speed.

15. Suez Canal - (n.) an artificial waterway in Egypt connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea Example: The opening of the Suez Canal had a significant impact on shipping routes.

16. Cargo capacity - (n.) the maximum amount of cargo that a ship can carry Example: Steam ships had larger cargo capacity compared to clippers.

17. Trade winds - (n.) prevailing winds in specific regions that facilitated sailing routes Example: Cutty Sark depended on the strong trade winds of the southern hemisphere.

18. Icebergs - (n.) large masses of floating ice detached from glaciers or ice shelves Example: Cutty Sark sailed dangerously close to icebergs off the southern tip of South America.

19. End of life expectancy - (phrase) the point at which a ship reaches the projected end of its service life Example: As Cutty Sark approached the end of her life expectancy, she became less profitable.

20. Miscellaneous cargoes - (n.) various types of goods or items transported as cargo Example: Cutty Sark carried miscellaneous cargoes around the world in her later years.

21. Repairs - (n.) actions taken to fix or restore something that is damaged or broken Example: Cutty Sark underwent repairs in Falmouth after being damaged in a gale.

22. Training ship - (n.) a vessel used to train sailors or naval cadets Example: Cutty Sark served as a training ship under the ownership of Wilfred Dowman.

23. Public display - (n.) exhibition or presentation to the general public Example: Cutty Sark was transferred to Greenwich for public display in 1954.

24. Fire - (n.) a destructive event resulting in the burning of property or structures Example: Cutty Sark suffered from a fire in 2007, causing significant damage.

25. Visitors - (n.) individuals who visit a place or attraction Example: Cutty Sark attracts a large number of visitors each year.

1. Quarter of a million - (phrase) approximately 250,000 Example: Cutty Sark attracts approximately a quarter of a million visitors each year.

2. Nineteenth century - (n.) the period from 1800 to 1899 Example: The nineteenth century was a time of significant technological advancements in Britain.

3. Shift - (n.) a change or transition from one state or condition to another Example: The shipping industry experienced a shift from wind power to steam power.

4. Iron and steel - (n.) strong and durable materials used in shipbuilding Example: Shipbuilders began utilizing iron and steel instead of wood for constructing ships.

5. Clipper ship - (n.) a fast-sailing vessel with sleek lines and a large carrying capacity Example: Cutty Sark is an example of a clipper ship, renowned for its speed.

6. Dominate - (v.) to be the most influential or prevalent in a particular field or area Example: Clippers dominated world trade during their era of operation.

7. Intact - (adj.) undamaged or complete, with no parts missing or broken Example: Cutty Sark is the only surviving clipper ship that remains largely intact.

8. Poem - (n.) a piece of writing in verse, often expressing emotions or ideas creatively Example: Cutty Sark's name is derived from a poem by Robert Burns.

9. Figurehead - (n.) a carved ornament at the front of a ship, often depicting a person or mythical creature Example: Cutty Sark's figurehead represents a witch from the poem Tam O'Shanter.

10. Construction - (n.) the process of building or assembling something, in this case, a ship Example: Cutty Sark's construction took place in Dumbarton, Scotland.

11. Shipping company - (n.) an enterprise that owns and operates ships for commercial purposes Example: Cutty Sark was owned by a shipping company owned by John Willis.

12. Maiden voyage - (n.) the first official journey of a newly built ship Example: Cutty Sark embarked on her maiden voyage from London to China in 1870.

13. Bad winds - (phrase) unfavorable or adverse wind conditions for sailing Example: Cutty Sark faced challenges due to bad winds during her voyages.

14. Rival clipper - (n.) another clipper ship that competes in the same trade routes or markets Example: Cutty Sark encountered a rival clipper, Thermopylae, during a voyage in 1872.

15. Repairing - (v.) the act of fixing or restoring something that is damaged or broken Example: The ship's crew undertook the task of repairing the severely damaged rudder.

16. Steam ships - (n.) vessels powered by steam engines for propulsion Example: The rise of steam ships posed challenges to the dominance of clippers.

17. Suez Canal - (n.) a man-made waterway connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea Example: The opening of the Suez Canal had a significant impact on shipping routes.

18. Journey time - (n.) the duration or length of time required for a trip or voyage Example: Steam ships reduced the journey time between Britain and China by two months.

19. Profitable - (adj.) yielding financial gain or beneficial in terms of returns Example: Cutty Sark became less profitable as steam ships gained dominance.

20. Violence aboard - (phrase) incidents of physical aggression or disturbances occurring on a ship Example: Aboard Cutty Sark, there were instances of violence that led to changes in the captaincy.

21. Incompetent drunkard - (phrase) an individual lacking skill or ability and prone to alcohol abuse Example: The previous captain was replaced by an incompetent drunkard due to his misconduct.

22. Wool trade - (n.) the buying and selling of wool as a commodity Example: Cutty Sark found success in the wool trade, transporting wool from Australia to Britain.

23. Captain - (n.) the person in charge of a ship and responsible for its navigation and operation Example: Richard Woodget, the ship's next captain, was an excellent navigator.

24. Navigator - (n.) a person skilled in planning and directing the course of a ship or aircraft Example: Captain Richard Woodget proved to be an exceptional navigator for Cutty Sark.

25. Profitability - (n.) the state or condition of being financially beneficial or lucrative Example: Cutty Sark's profitability declined as steam ships became more prevalent.

Passage-2

Saving the soil

1.       Soil degradation - (n.) the process of deterioration and loss of quality in soil due to various factors Example: The recent UN report highlights the alarming rate of soil degradation worldwide.

2.       Farmable soil - (n.) soil that is suitable for cultivation and farming activities Example: If we don't address the decline, farmable soil could disappear within 60 years.

3.       Microorganisms - (n.) microscopic organisms such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi Example: Healthy soil contains a diverse community of microorganisms that play vital roles.

4.       Antibiotics - (n.) medications used to inhibit or kill bacteria to treat infections Example: Healthy soil is a valuable source of antibiotics that can combat antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

5.       Ally against climate change - (phrase) something that works in favor of mitigating the effects of climate change Example: Soil acts as an ally against climate change by sequestering carbon from decomposed organic matter.

6.       Carbon content - (n.) the amount of carbon stored in a substance or material Example: Soils lock in significant carbon content, holding three times more carbon than the entire atmosphere.

7.       Water storage - (n.) the capacity of soil to retain and store water Example: Soils play a crucial role in water storage, helping prevent flood damage and regulating water availability.

8.       Soil degradation costs - (phrase) expenses incurred due to damages caused by soil degradation Example: In the UK, soil degradation costs £233 million annually in damage to buildings, roads, and bridges from floods.

9.       Special properties - (phrase) distinctive characteristics or qualities possessed by soil Example: The danger lies in losing the microorganisms that give soil its special properties.

10.   Fertile - (adj.) rich in nutrients and suitable for plant growth Example: Over time, soil becomes less fertile when unused crop residues are not returned to enrich it.

11.   Variety of crops - (phrase) a diverse range of different plant species cultivated in an area Example: Varying the variety of crops grown can help maintain soil fertility and prevent degradation.

12.   Haber-Bosch process - (n.) a method for the industrial production of ammonia used in synthetic fertilizers Example: The Haber-Bosch process revolutionized agriculture by enabling the widespread use of synthetic fertilizers.

13.   Synthetic fertilizers - (n.) artificially produced fertilizers used to provide nutrients to crops Example: Indiscriminate use of synthetic fertilizers can have negative effects on soil health and contribute to pollution.

14.   Acidic and salty - (adj.) having increased acidity or saltiness, detrimental to soil quality Example: Excessive use of chemical fertilizers can make soil acidic and salty, degrading its fertility.

15.   Beneficial bacteria and fungi - (phrase) microorganisms that contribute positively to soil health Example: Pius Floris developed a mix of beneficial bacteria and fungi to improve soil quality.

16.   Desert-like - (adj.) resembling a desert in terms of aridity and lack of vegetation Example: The test plots affected by fertilizer overuse had become desert-like in terms of soil conditions.

17.   Control plots - (n.) areas used as a standard comparison in an experiment or study Example: In the experiment, control plots were fed with traditional fertilizers for comparison.

18.   Global soil degradation - (phrase) the widespread decline and deterioration of soils worldwide Example: Addressing global soil degradation requires comprehensive measures and global cooperation.

19.   Classifying soil - (phrase) categorizing soil based on various characteristics and properties Example: The absence of an agreed international system for classifying soil complicates understanding and action.

20.   Global Soil Map project - (n.) an initiative led by the UN to create a comprehensive map of soils worldwide Example: The Global Soil Map project aims to provide real-time data on soil conditions globally.

21.   Real-time data - (phrase) up-to-date information available immediately or without delay Example: The Global Soil Map project seeks to provide real-time data on the state of soils worldwide.

22.   Land degradation - (n.) the decline or loss of land's productivity and ecosystem services Example: The proposal of 'zero net land degradation' aims to address the issue of land degradation.

23.   Protected zones - (n.) designated areas established for the conservation and preservation of endangered soils Example: Some researchers advocate for the creation of protected zones to safeguard endangered soils.

24.   Soil diversity - (n.) the variety and richness of different types of soils in a given area Example: Conservation efforts may focus on preserving areas with the highest soil diversity.

25.   Benchmark of quality - (phrase) a standard or reference point indicating the desired level of quality Example: Unspoiled soils could serve as a benchmark of quality for future soil restoration efforts.

26.   Take action - (phrase) to initiate or engage in efforts to address a problem or situation Example: It is crucial to take action now to prevent further soil degradation and protect our future.

27.   Degradation of soil - (phrase) the decline in quality or health of soil due to various factors Example: The long-term degradation of soil poses significant threats to agricultural productivity and ecosystem health.

28.   Ecosystem studies - (n.) the scientific examination and analysis of the interactions between organisms and their environment Example: Peter Groffman is a prominent figure in ecosystem studies and has emphasized the importance of soil health.

29.   Decomposing plants - (phrase) plants that are in the process of breaking down and returning nutrients to the soil Example: Microorganisms in healthy soil play a role in decomposing organic matter from decomposing plants.

30.   Diverse community - (phrase) a variety of different organisms coexisting within a specific area or environment Example: A diverse community of microorganisms in soil contributes to its overall health and fertility.

31.   Indiscriminate use - (phrase) the uncontrolled or excessive application of something without careful consideration Example: The indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers can have detrimental effects on soil quality and ecosystem balance.

32.   Soil health - (n.) the condition and overall well-being of soil, including its fertility and ability to support life Example: Pius Floris focuses on improving soil health by utilizing beneficial bacteria, fungi, and humus.

33.   Soil conditions - (n.) the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of soil in a particular area Example: The test plots showed significantly improved soil conditions after the application of beneficial microorganisms.

34.   Soil restoration - (n.) the process of rehabilitating and improving the quality and functionality of degraded soil Example: Unspoiled soils can serve as a reference point for soil restoration efforts to recover degraded areas.

35.   Comprehensive measures - (phrase) a set of extensive and thorough actions or strategies Example: Addressing global soil degradation requires comprehensive measures that encompass sustainable agriculture and land management practices.

36.   Carbon neutrality - (n.) the state of achieving a balance between carbon emissions and carbon removal or offsetting Example: The concept of carbon neutrality provides a clear target to guide efforts in mitigating climate change.

37.   Soil diversity - (n.) the variety of soil types and characteristics within a specific geographic area Example: The conservation of soil diversity is crucial for maintaining ecosystem resilience and supporting diverse plant and animal life.

38.   Expectations - (n.) beliefs or hopes about what is likely to happen in the future Example: The goal of "zero net land degradation" helps shape expectations and encourages collective action to protect soil resources.

39.   Immediate creation - (phrase) the prompt establishment or implementation of something Example: Some researchers advocate for the immediate creation of protected zones to safeguard endangered soils.

40.   Conservation efforts - (n.) actions or initiatives aimed at preserving and protecting natural resources or ecosystems Example: Conservation efforts play a vital role in safeguarding soil health and preventing further degradation.

41.   Global cooperation - (phrase) collaborative efforts involving multiple countries or regions on a global scale Example: Addressing soil degradation requires global cooperation to share knowledge, resources, and implement effective solutions.

42.   Future protection - (phrase) measures taken to ensure the preservation and sustainable use of resources for future generations Example: Establishing protected zones can contribute to the future protection of valuable soil resources and their functions.

43.   Preserving areas - (phrase) conserving or safeguarding specific locations or habitats from degradation or destruction Example: Preservation of areas with high soil diversity is important for preserving the overall health and resilience of ecosystems.

44.   Safeguard endangered soils - (phrase) to protect and ensure the survival of soils facing significant threats or degradation Example: Urgent actions are required to safeguard endangered soils and prevent irreversible damage to our ecosystems.

45.   Address the issue - (phrase) to focus on and take steps to deal with a specific problem or concern Example: Governments and stakeholders must work together to address the issue of soil degradation and implement sustainable practices.

46.   Comprehensive map - (phrase) a detailed and inclusive representation or visual depiction of a specific area or subject Example: The Global Soil Map project aims to create a comprehensive map that provides valuable data on soil conditions worldwide.

47.   Easily understood target - (phrase) a clear and straightforward objective that is easy to comprehend Example: A goal of "zero net land degradation" serves as an easily understood target to mobilize action and raise awareness.

48.   Coexistence - (n.) the state of two or more organisms or elements existing or occurring together Example: Soil microorganisms and plants rely on a symbiotic coexistence that supports nutrient cycling and ecosystem functioning.

49.   Mitigating - (v.) reducing or lessening the severity, impact, or risk of something Example: Implementing sustainable agricultural practices is crucial for mitigating soil degradation and protecting soil health.

50.   Immediate action - (phrase) prompt and decisive steps taken without delay or hesitation Example: The urgency of the soil degradation problem demands immediate action to prevent further damage and secure a sustainable future.

Passage-3

Book review

26.   Positive psychology - (n.) a branch of psychology that focuses on the study of positive emotions, well-being, and personal growth Example: Richard Layard and other advocates of positive psychology believe that governments can promote collective well-being and happiness.

27.   Collective well-being - (n.) the overall state of well-being and happiness within a society or community Example: Layard argues that the purpose of government is to promote collective well-being and ensure the happiness of its citizens.

28.   Self-evidently good - (phrase) inherently or obviously good without requiring further justification or explanation Example: According to Layard, happiness is self-evidently good, and its importance does not require external reasons.

29.   Vast philosophical literature - (phrase) a wide-ranging body of written works exploring philosophical concepts and ideas Example: Critics argue that proponents of positive psychology overlook the vast philosophical literature that delves into the complexities and interpretations of happiness.

30.   Metaphysics or fiction - (phrase) dismissive of philosophical concepts and theories as abstract or imaginary Example: Layard and proponents of positive psychology often disregard philosophical perspectives as metaphysics or fiction.

31.   Ethical reflection - (n.) critical thinking and examination of moral values and principles Example: Positive psychology proponents overlook the rich history of ethical reflection on human happiness and its relationship with other values.

32.   Moral inquiry - (n.) the process of questioning and investigating moral concepts and principles Example: Davies argues that the view that happiness is the only self-evident good limits moral inquiry and overlooks deeper philosophical reflections.

33.   Happiness industry - (n.) a term used to describe the commercialization and commodification of happiness and well-being Example: Davies' book explores how the concept of happiness has been exploited within the happiness industry and its impact on various sectors.

34.   Historical framework - (phrase) a structured context that places events or ideas within a historical perspective Example: Davies provides a historical framework by tracing the development of the concept of happiness from Bentham to the present day.

35.   Public sector management consultant - (phrase) a professional who advises and assists in improving the management and efficiency of public sector organizations Example: Bentham's activities extended beyond philosophy, resembling those of a public sector management consultant with his proposals for organizational improvements.

36.   Psychological maladies - (phrase) mental or emotional disorders or problems Example: Davies highlights how economic problems are sometimes redefined and treated as psychological maladies in the context of the happiness industry.

37.   Objective measurement - (phrase) quantification or assessment based on verifiable criteria or standards Example: The belief in objective measurement of inner states of pleasure and displeasure has influenced management studies and advertising.

38.   Behaviour change - (phrase) the process of modifying or influencing individuals' actions, habits, or behaviors Example: Governments and organizations aim to promote behaviour change to encourage socially desirable actions among the population.

39.   Threat to human freedom - (phrase) a potential danger or risk that undermines individual liberty and autonomy Example: The idea of governments promoting happiness can be seen as a threat to human freedom, as it may involve imposing a particular notion of happiness on individuals.

40.   Intellectual pedigree - (phrase) the lineage or origin of an idea or concept within intellectual traditions or history Example: The concept of governments promoting happiness has a long intellectual pedigree that can be traced back to Bentham and his utilitarian philosophy.

41.   Motivate them in their labours - (phrase) inspire or drive individuals in their work or efforts Example: The idea of ever-increasing happiness serves as a source of motivation for individuals in modern industrial societies to continue their labours.

42.   Reductive model - (n.) a simplified or narrow view that reduces complex phenomena or human behavior to simplistic explanations Example: J.B. Watson's reductive model of behaviorism oversimplifies human action and reduces it to stimulus-response relationships.

43.   Behaviour Insights Team - (n.) a government-established team focused on studying and understanding behavioral patterns and promoting desired behaviors Example: The British government has formed a Behaviour Insights Team to investigate how people can be encouraged to adopt socially desirable behaviors at minimal cost.

44.   Promoting happiness - (phrase) actively working towards increasing happiness levels in individuals or society as a whole Example: The concept of promoting happiness raises questions about the role of governments in shaping and influencing the well-being of their citizens.

45.   Freedom of choice - (phrase) the ability of individuals to make independent decisions and act according to their own preferences Example: The emphasis on promoting happiness by governments may conflict with individual freedom of choice and personal autonomy.

46.   Measurement of well-being - (phrase) the process of quantifying and assessing the level of satisfaction and contentment in individuals or communities Example: Positive psychology aims to develop tools and methods for the measurement of well-being to inform policies and interventions.

47.   Philosophical exploration - (phrase) in-depth examination and inquiry into philosophical concepts and ideas Example: Critics argue that proponents of positive psychology should engage in deeper philosophical exploration to understand the complexities of happiness.

48.   Happiness as a societal goal - (phrase) the idea of prioritizing the well-being and happiness of society as a whole Example: Layard and others advocate for considering happiness as a societal goal to guide policies and decision-making processes.

49.   Ethical implications - (phrase) the moral consequences or considerations arising from a particular action, decision, or belief Example: The promotion of happiness by governments raises ethical implications regarding the balance between individual freedom and collective well-being.

50.   Critical examination - (phrase) a thorough and analytical evaluation of ideas, theories, or concepts Example: It is essential to subject the concept of promoting happiness to critical examination to ensure a well-rounded understanding of its implications and limitations.

51.   Cult of happiness - (phrase) an obsessive or exaggerated focus on the pursuit of happiness as the ultimate goal in life Example: The book highlights the emergence of a cult of happiness in modern society, where happiness is seen as the ultimate objective.

52.   Well-being measurement - (phrase) the process of assessing and quantifying the overall state of well-being in individuals or communities Example: Positive psychology aims to develop reliable tools for well-being measurement to gauge the effectiveness of interventions and policies.

53.   Philosophical perspectives - (phrase) various viewpoints and theories derived from philosophical thought and analysis Example: It is important to consider various philosophical perspectives when discussing the concept of happiness and its implications.

54.   Human freedom and autonomy - (phrase) the ability of individuals to act and make choices independently, without external constraints Example: The discussion around promoting happiness by governments raises concerns about the potential impact on human freedom and autonomy.

55.   Subjective well-being - (phrase) an individual's personal evaluation and perception of their own happiness and life satisfaction Example: Positive psychology seeks to understand and enhance subjective well-being by focusing on individual experiences and perceptions.

56.   Moral philosophy - (phrase) the branch of philosophy that deals with ethical principles and moral values Example: The concept of happiness has been extensively explored within the field of moral philosophy throughout history.

57.   Complexity of happiness - (phrase) the intricate nature of happiness, involving multiple factors and subjective experiences Example: The complexity of happiness challenges the notion of a one-size-fits-all approach to promoting well-being in society.

58.   Critique of happiness-centric approach - (phrase) an analysis or evaluation that questions the exclusive emphasis on happiness as the ultimate goal Example: Some scholars offer a critique of the happiness-centric approach, arguing that it overlooks the importance of other values and aspects of human life.

59.   Multidimensional well-being - (phrase) a comprehensive perspective that considers multiple dimensions of well-being, including physical, emotional, social, and psychological aspects Example: Instead of focusing solely on happiness, a multidimensional well-being framework takes into account various facets of human flourishing.

60.   Balancing individual and collective well-being - (phrase) finding a middle ground between promoting individual happiness and considering the overall well-being of society Example: Governments face the challenge of balancing individual and collective well-being when formulating policies that aim to enhance societal happiness.