Cambridge IELTS 16 Reading Vocabulary

Cambridge IELTS 16

Test-1

Passage -1 Why we need to protect polar bears

1.       Adipose tissue: Fat stored in the body. Example: Polar bears have a lot of adipose tissue that keeps them warm in cold temperatures.

2.       Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs): A type of cholesterol often referred to as "bad" cholesterol. Example: Polar bears have a gene that helps reduce the levels of LDLs in their bodies, unlike humans.

3.       Osteoporosis: A disease where bones become weak and fragile. Example: Older humans often suffer from osteoporosis, but polar bears do not experience this condition.

4.       Remodelled: The process of changing or rebuilding something. Example: Bone tissue in the body is remodelled, meaning it can be added or removed depending on certain factors.

5.       Anecdotal evidence: Informal accounts or stories based on personal observations. Example: There is anecdotal evidence suggesting that polar bears exhibit problem-solving abilities.

6.       Conservation efforts: Actions taken to protect and preserve wildlife and their habitats. Example: It is important to consider the medical benefits of polar bears in our conservation efforts.

7.       Perceived: How something is understood or regarded by others. Example: Bears are often perceived as unintelligent and violent, but they have shown problem-solving abilities.

8.       Deliberate: Intentional or done on purpose. Example: Polar bears have shown deliberate and focused manipulation of objects.

9.       Agile: Able to move quickly and easily. Example: The study showed that polar bears are agile and capable of planned behaviors.

10.   Extinction: The complete disappearance or annihilation of a species. Example: If polar bears were to face extinction, it would be a loss to both medical research and wildlife.

11.   Genetic structure: The arrangement and organization of genes within an organism. Example: Scientists studied the genetic structure of polar bears to understand their unique characteristics.

12.   Paradox: A situation or statement that seems contradictory but may actually be true. Example: The fact that pregnant polar bears maintain strong bones despite fasting is a paradox.

13.   Deplete: To use up or reduce the quantity or resources. Example: During hibernation, female polar bears deplete their calcium and calorie reserves.

14.   Bedridden: Unable to leave or move from a bed due to illness or injury. Example: Understanding bone remodelling in polar bears could benefit many bedridden humans.

15.   Assumptions: Beliefs or ideas taken for granted without proof. Example: Bears being perceived as stupid and violent are assumptions that don't hold true in all cases.

16.   Analogous: Similar or comparable in certain respects. Example: Comparing polar bears to humans for studying heart disease is an analogous approach.

17.   Aggressive: Ready to attack or confront, often with hostile intentions. Example: While polar bears can be dangerous in the wild, they don't necessarily exhibit aggressive behavior towards humans.

18.   Majestic: Having grandeur, beauty, or dignity. Example: Polar bears are known for their majestic appearance and powerful presence.

19.   Breakthroughs: Significant discoveries or advancements. Example: The potential loss of polar bears could mean the absence of future medical breakthroughs.

20.   Intelligent: Having a high level of mental ability or understanding. Example: Despite common misconceptions, polar bears have demonstrated signs of being intelligent creatures.

21.   Adapted: Specifically suited or adjusted to fit a particular environment or condition. Example: Polar bears are adapted to the extreme conditions of the Arctic Circle with their thick fur and layer of fat.

22.   Comparative: Relating to or involving comparison between two or more things. Example: Humans with similar levels of fat as polar bears would be considered overweight in comparative terms.

23.   Cholesterol: A type of fatty substance found in the blood. Example: Polar bears have a gene that helps reduce levels of cholesterol associated with heart disease.

24.   Hibernating: Going into a state of inactivity and reduced metabolism during the winter months. Example: Brown bears undergo hibernating during the colder months when they sleep for long periods.

25.   Parliament: A legislative body responsible for making laws and decisions in a country. Example: The plan for the underground railway had to be approved by the Parliament.

26.   Remained: Continued to be in a particular state or condition. Example: Despite the fasting period, the density of the polar bears' bones remained strong.

27.   Consistent: Steady, unchanging, or predictable in nature. Example: The polar bears' ability to maintain strong bones throughout hibernation is consistent.

28.   Perception: The way in which something is understood, interpreted, or seen. Example: People's perception of polar bears often varies based on their knowledge and experiences.

29.   Wildlife: Animals and plants living in their natural habitat, not domesticated or cultivated. Example: Protecting wildlife habitats is crucial for preserving biodiversity.

30.   Ancestor: A person or animal from whom one is descended. Example: Brown bears are considered the ancestors of polar bears, sharing a common evolutionary history.

31.   Consequences: Results or effects that follow from a particular action or event. Example: The disappearance of polar bears could have far-reaching consequences for the ecosystem.

32.   Genome: The complete set of genes or genetic material present in an organism. Example: Scientists studied the polar bear's genome to understand its genetic makeup.

33.   Osteoporosis: A medical condition characterized by weak and brittle bones. Example: Polar bears' ability to maintain strong bones may hold insights for combating osteoporosis in humans.

34.   Density: The degree of compactness or concentration of a substance or object. Example: Osteoporosis is characterized by reduced bone density.

35.   Parliament: A governing body that makes laws and decisions for a country or region. Example: The plan for the underground railway had to be approved by the Parliament.

36.   Extinction: The complete disappearance or extermination of a species. Example: Climate change could lead to the extinction of polar bears if their habitat continues to decline.

37.   Conservation: The act of protecting and preserving the environment and its natural resources. Example: Efforts should be made to promote conservation and safeguard endangered species.

38.   Bedridden: Confined to bed due to illness, injury, or disability. Example: Understanding bone density in polar bears could benefit bedridden individuals with mobility limitations.

39.   Assumptions: Beliefs or ideas taken for granted without proof or evidence. Example: We should question our assumptions about polar bears' intelligence and behavior.

40.   Emotions: Feelings or states of mind that arise in response to a particular situation or experience. Example: Observations suggest that polar bears may exhibit certain emotions such as frustration or playfulness.

Passage -2 The Step Pyramid of Djoser

1.       Monuments - Important and impressive structures or buildings that are created to honor or remember someone or something. Example: The pyramids are famous monuments in Egypt that were built to remember the kings.

2.       Tributes - Acts or objects that show respect, admiration, or gratitude towards someone. Example: The pyramids are grand tributes to the Egyptian kings because they were built to honor their memory.

3.       Evolution - The process of gradual development or change over time. Example: The pyramid form has evolved over centuries, which means it has changed and developed over a long period.

4.       Architect - A person who designs buildings and structures. Example: The Step Pyramid was designed by one brilliant architect who had great skill in planning and creating buildings.

5.       Reign - The period of time during which a king or queen rules a country. Example: Djoser is thought to have reigned for 19 years, meaning he was the king of Egypt for that period.

6.       Thoroughly - Doing something in a careful and detailed way. Example: The Step Pyramid has been thoroughly examined and investigated, which means it has been studied carefully and in detail.

7.       Complex - A group of buildings or structures that are closely connected and share a common purpose. Example: The Step Pyramid was part of a larger complex that included a temple, courtyards, and living quarters for the priests.

8.       Incline - To slope or lean at an angle. Example: The builders of the Step Pyramid placed the stones at an inward incline, meaning they positioned them to lean inward at an angle.

9.       Discourage - To try to prevent or stop someone from doing something. Example: The false doors and the trench around the Step Pyramid were incorporated to discourage unwanted visitors, meaning they were meant to discourage people from entering the complex.

10.   Burial chamber - A room or space where a dead person is laid to rest. Example: The burial chamber of the tomb was located beneath the base of the pyramid and was where the king's body was placed.

11.   Maze - A confusing and complicated network of paths or passages. Example: The underground tunnels surrounding the burial chamber formed a vast maze to confuse and deter potential robbers.

12.   Robbers - People who steal or take things that belong to others. Example: Ancient robbers managed to find a way into Djoser's tomb and stole his grave goods and even his body.

13.   Excavated - To carefully dig out and uncover something, usually of historical or archaeological significance. Example: The archaeologists excavated the pyramid and its complex, meaning they carefully dug and uncovered the structures and artifacts.

14.   Revolutionary - Something that introduces a completely new or radical change or idea. Example: The Step Pyramid was a revolutionary advance in architecture because it introduced a completely new and innovative design.

15.   Archetype - A perfect or typical example of something. Example: The Step Pyramid became the archetype that all other pyramid builders in Egypt followed, meaning it became the perfect example that others imitated.

16.   Significant - Very important or meaningful. Example: The Step Pyramid holds a significant place in human history because of its impact on the development of stone architecture in Egypt and the world.

17.   Milestone - A significant event or achievement that marks an important stage or progress. Example: The Step Pyramid is considered a milestone in the evolution of monumental stone architecture because it marked a crucial stage in its development.

18.   Archaeologist - A scientist who studies human history and prehistory through the excavation of artifacts and structures. Example: The archaeologists who excavated the Step Pyramid studied the artifacts and structures to learn more about the past.

19.   Astonish - To greatly surprise or amaze someone. Example: The discoveries made by the archaeologists inside the pyramid and its complex astonished them because they were unexpected and impressive.

20.   Amaze - To cause great wonder, admiration, or fascination. Example: The archaeologists were amazed by the treasures and artifacts they found in the Step Pyramid, as they were of great historical and cultural value.

21.   Archaeologist - A person who studies ancient human history and civilizations by examining artifacts and remains. Example: Miroslav Verner, an Egyptologist, writes about the significance of the Step Pyramid and its impact on architectural history.

22.   Archetype - A typical example or model of something that others are based on or imitate. Example: The Step Pyramid became the archetype for all the other great pyramids built in Egypt, serving as a model for their construction.

23.   Revolutionary - Involving or causing a complete and significant change or advancement. Example: The Step Pyramid was considered a revolutionary advancement in architecture because it introduced new design elements and techniques.

24.   Predecessors - People who held a position or title before someone else. Example: Djoser placed stone vessels in the pyramid to honor his predecessors, the rulers from the earlier dynasties of Egypt.

25.   Dumped - To discard or throw away something without care or consideration. Example: Some historians believe that the stone vessels were dumped into the shafts of the pyramid as a way to prevent grave robbers from reaching the burial chamber.

26.   Valuables - Items that are considered to be of high worth, either in terms of monetary value or personal significance. Example: Most of Djoser's valuables were stolen by the robbers, but a small number of items were overlooked and found by the archaeologists.

27.   Archaeologists - Scientists who study human history and prehistoric civilizations by examining artifacts and physical remains. Example: The archaeologists who excavated the Step Pyramid used their expertise to analyze and interpret the findings from the site.

28.   Excavation - The process of carefully digging and uncovering archaeological sites to reveal artifacts and structures. Example: The excavation of the Step Pyramid involved systematically digging and documenting the layers of the complex to understand its construction and history.

29.   Artifact - An object made by humans, typically of historical or cultural significance. Example: The archaeologists found various artifacts inside the Step Pyramid, such as stone vessels, which provided insights into the ancient Egyptian civilization.

30.   Architecture - The art and science of designing and constructing buildings and structures. Example: The Step Pyramid showcases the advanced architecture of ancient Egypt, demonstrating the skill and engineering knowledge of its builders.

31.   Intricate - Very detailed, complex, or elaborate. Example: The underground network of tunnels and chambers in the Step Pyramid was intricate, with carefully planned pathways to deter tomb robbers.

32.   Network - A system of interconnected or intersecting elements. Example: The tunnels and passages in the Step Pyramid formed a vast underground network, allowing movement throughout the complex.

33.   Pharaoh - The title given to the ancient Egyptian kings or rulers. Example: Djoser, for whom the Step Pyramid was built, was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt during the Third Dynasty.

34.   Robbers - People who steal or take things that belong to others. Example: Despite the precautions, ancient robbers managed to find their way into Djoser's tomb and steal valuable items.

35.   Valuables - Items that are considered to be of high worth, either in terms of monetary value or personal significance. Example: The valuables left behind in the Step Pyramid included precious objects like jewelry, pottery, and ceremonial items.

36.   Astound - To greatly surprise or shock someone. Example: The discoveries made during the excavation of the Step Pyramid astounded the archaeologists, revealing the richness of ancient Egyptian culture.

37.   Archaeological - Relating to the study of human history and prehistoric civilizations through the examination of artifacts and physical remains. Example: The archaeological findings from the Step Pyramid provided valuable insights into the rituals, beliefs, and daily life of ancient Egyptians.

38.   Documentation - The process of recording and describing observations, findings, or data. Example: The archaeologists meticulously documented their discoveries, taking notes, photographs, and sketches to ensure accurate and detailed records.

39.   Engineering - The application of scientific and mathematical principles to design and construct structures or solve practical problems. Example: The construction of the Step Pyramid required advanced engineering techniques to ensure its stability and longevity.

40.   Heritage - The cultural or historical legacy passed down from previous generations. Example: The Step Pyramid is a significant part of Egypt's cultural heritage, representing the architectural achievements of ancient Egyptian civilization.

41.   Civilization - A complex society characterized by advanced social, cultural, and technological development. Example: Ancient Egypt was one of the earliest and most renowned civilizations, known for its impressive monuments, hieroglyphic writing, and organized society.

Passage -3 The future of work

1.       Consultancy - (noun) a professional firm that provides expert advice or assistance.Example: According to a leading business consultancy, 3-14% of the global workforce will need to switch occupations.

2.       Occupation - (noun) a job or profession.Example: Workers will need to switch to a different occupation within the next 10-15 years.

3.       Adapt - (verb) to adjust or modify in response to new conditions or circumstances.Example: All workers will need to adapt as their occupations evolve alongside increasingly capable machines.

4.       Automation - (noun) the use of technology to control or operate a process without human intervention.Example: Automation, or embodied artificial intelligence (AI), is one aspect of the disruptive effects of technology on the labor market.

5.       Disruptive - (adjective) causing disturbance or interruption.Example: Technology has disruptive effects on the labor market.

6.       Embodied - (adjective) existing or represented in a physical form.Example: Embodied artificial intelligence (AI) refers to automation that takes physical form.

7.       Disembodied - (adjective) not having a physical form.Example: Disembodied AI, like the algorithms running in our smartphones, is another aspect of technology's impact.

8.       Algorithm - (noun) a set of rules or instructions for solving a problem or completing a task, often used in computer programming.Example: Algorithms can read legal contracts, analyze medical scans, and gather market intelligence.

9.       Intelligence - (noun) the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills.Example: Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the ability of machines to exhibit intelligence.

10.   Legitimate - (adjective) conforming to recognized principles or accepted rules.Example: Legitimate peripheral participation is a way of learning about a job by observing experts.

11.   Peripheral - (adjective) relating to or situated on the edge or periphery.Example: Legitimate peripheral participation involves a novice standing next to experts and learning by observation.

12.   Telecommunications - (noun) the transmission of information over long distances using electronic systems.Example: Pachidi monitored a telecommunications company to study the impact of technology on salespeople.

13.   Algorithmic - (adjective) relating to or based on algorithms.Example: The company started using an algorithmic approach to define when account managers should contact certain customers.

14.   Short-sighted - (adjective) lacking foresight or long-term thinking.Example: A short-sighted view begins to creep into working practices when workers become dependent on algorithms.

15.   Transitions - (noun) the process or period of changing from one state or condition to another.Example: The future of work will involve major transitions across the whole life course for everyone.

16.   Retraining - (noun) the process of learning new skills or knowledge for a different job or occupation.Example: Retraining will be necessary as jobs change due to automation, AI, and robotics.

17.   Redundancies - (noun) the state of being no longer needed or useful because of excess or duplication.Example: Change can result in redundancies, but social policies can address this through retraining and redeployment.

18.   Unemployment - (noun) the state of being without a paid job.Example: The advent of new technologies does not mean automatic unemployment.

19.   Laws - (noun) rules established by a governing authority to regulate behavior and maintain order.Example: It's the laws that restrict the supply of capital to the job market, not the advent of new technologies, that causes unemployment.

20.   Automation, AI, and robotics - (noun) technologies and systems that automate tasks or simulate human intelligence in machines.Example: Automation, AI, and robotics are transforming the way work is done.

21.   Jobless future - (noun phrase) a future scenario where there are no jobs available for humans due to technological advancements.Example: The research aims to answer whether automation, AI, and robotics will lead to a jobless future.

22.   Retraining - (noun) the process of learning new skills or acquiring additional knowledge for a different job or occupation.Example: Social policies can address job redundancies through retraining and redeployment.

23.   Redeployment - (noun) the transfer or relocation of employees to different roles or positions within an organization.Example: Redeployment allows workers to be moved to new roles or departments instead of being laid off.

24.   Trustworthy - (adjective) reliable, deserving of trust or confidence.Example: The objective is to make AI technologies more trustworthy, ensuring that organizations and individuals understand how AI decisions are made.

25.   Transparent - (adjective) clear, open, and easily understood.Example: Researchers aim to make AI technologies transparent, so that the decision-making process is clear and understandable.

26.   Dilemmas - (noun) difficult situations or problems with no easy solution.Example: The new world of AI raises dilemmas regarding expertise, occupational boundaries, and control.

27.   Economic democracy - (noun phrase) a system where economic power and wealth are distributed more evenly among the population.Example: Bold policies are needed to guarantee full employment, fair incomes, and a thriving economic democracy.

28.   Apocalyptic - (adjective) relating to or predicting a catastrophic or disastrous event.Example: Apocalyptic views about the future of work are considered misguided by some researchers.

29.   Seizing - (verb) taking hold of or grasping an opportunity or advantage.Example: Governments should seize the opportunity to improve policies in response to the changes brought by AI and robotics.

30.   Policy - (noun) a course or principle of action adopted or proposed by an organization or government.Example: Governments should enforce good job security policies in response to the impact of AI and robotics.

31.   Fairer future - (noun phrase) a future that is more just, equitable, and unbiased.Example: Reprogramming the law can prepare for a fairer future of work and leisure.

32.   Humankind - (noun) the human race, human beings collectively.Example: These new technologies deliver humankind the capacity to live in ways that were once unimaginable.

33.   Subsistence agriculture - (noun phrase) a farming system where crops are grown primarily for the farmer's own consumption, with little surplus for sale.Example: The industrial revolution brought people past subsistence agriculture into new forms of employment.

34.   Corporate revolution - (noun phrase) a period of significant changes and advancements in the corporate world, typically referring to the rise of large corporations and mass production.Example: The corporate revolution enabled mass production and transformed the nature of work.

35.   Social - (adjective) relating to society, the interaction and relationships between individuals and groups within a community. Example: The next revolution will be social, encompassing not only technological advancements but also changes in societal structures and relationships.

36.   Astounding - (adjective) causing astonishment or amazement.Example: The promises of these new technologies are astounding, offering capabilities beyond imagination.

37.   Envisages - (verb) visualizes or imagines a future scenario or outcome.Example: Professor Hamish Low envisages a multistage employment life with retraining and multiple jobs across the life course.

38.   Fallacy - (noun) a mistaken belief or misconception.Example: Economist Professor Hamish Low believes that the prediction of job losses is based on a fallacy.

39.   Fixed - (adjective) unchanging or not subject to variation.Example: The assumption that the number of jobs is fixed is erroneous according to Professor Hamish Low.

40.   Advancement - (noun) progress or improvement, especially in knowledge, technology, or society.Example: The advent of new technologies brings advancements that reshape the world of work.

41.   Unemployment - (noun) the state of being without a paid job.Example: The causes of unemployment are being studied to understand the impact of automation, AI, and robotics.

42.   Seize - (verb) take hold of, grasp, or capture.Example: Governments should seize the opportunity to improve policies in response to the changes brought by AI and robotics.

43.   Redundancy - (noun) the state of being no longer needed or useful due to duplication or excess.Example: Redundancies may occur as a result of technological change, but social policies can address them.

44.   Law - (noun) a system of rules and regulations established by a governing authority.Example: The law can be reprogrammed to adapt to the future of work and create a fairer system.

45.   Leisure - (noun) time available for relaxation, enjoyment, or other activities not related to work.Example: Reprogramming the law can prepare for a fairer future of work and leisure.

46.   Revolution - (noun) a dramatic and wide-reaching change in a particular area or aspect.Example: The next revolution will bring about significant transformations in both technology and society.

47.   Preempt - (verb) take action in advance to prevent or forestall an event or change.Example: Leaders are called upon to preempt the coming changes with bold policies to ensure full employment.

48.   Thriving - (adjective) prosperous, flourishing, or successful.Example: Bold policies are needed to guarantee a thriving economic democracy for all individuals.

49.   Capacity - (noun) the ability or potential to do, experience, or understand something.Example: These new technologies provide humankind with the capacity to live in unprecedented ways.

50.   Unimaginable - (adjective) beyond what can be imagined or conceived.Example: The advancements brought by new technologies offer possibilities that were once unimaginable.

Test -2

The White Horse of Uffington

1.       Geoglyphs - (noun) large figures or designs created by removing overlying grass or earth to reveal the underlying surface, often made on hillsides.Example: The cutting of geoglyphs into the earth has been a tradition for thousands of years.

2.       Prehistoric - (adjective) belonging to or existing in a time before recorded history.Example: Many historians believe that the Long Man of Wilmington is a prehistoric figure.

3.       Enigmatic - (adjective) mysterious or puzzling in nature.Example: The date and origin of the Long Man of Wilmington remain enigmatic, with differing opinions among historians.

4.       Gleaming - (adjective) shining brightly or with a reflected light.Example: The geoglyphs were revealed by removing the grass to expose the gleaming white chalk below.

5.       Continuity - (noun) the state of being continuous or uninterrupted.Example: The survival of ancient hill figures in England is a testament to the continuity of local customs and beliefs.

6.       Stylised - (adjective) depicted or represented in a simplified or abstract manner.Example: The Uffington White Horse is a stylised representation of a horse with distinctive features.

7.       Depictions - (noun) representations or portrayals of something, often in art or literature.Example: The Uffington White Horse shares similarities with the stylised depictions of horses on ancient coins.

8.       Origin - (noun) the point or place where something begins or arises.Example: The origin of the Uffington White Horse can be traced back to the Late Bronze Age or Early Iron Age.

9.       Emblem - (noun) a symbolic representation or sign that represents a particular group or concept.Example: The Uffington White Horse may have served as a tribal emblem for the inhabitants of the nearby hillfort.

10.   Ritual - (noun) a set of actions or ceremonies performed in a specific order, often for religious or cultural purposes.Example: The carving of the Uffington White Horse may have been associated with Bronze or Iron Age rituals.

11.   Associations - (noun) connections or relationships between things or ideas.Example: The Uffington White Horse had associations with fertility and the Celtic horse goddess Epona.

12.   Tribal - (adjective) relating to a group of people sharing common ancestry, customs, and traditions.Example: The Uffington White Horse could have represented the land of a specific tribal group.

13.   Mythology - (noun) a collection of traditional stories or legends, often explaining the beliefs and customs of a particular group.Example: The carving of the Uffington White Horse might have represented a goddess in native mythology.

14.   Temporary - (adjective) lasting for only a limited period; not permanent.Example: Geoglyphs were created as temporary gestures, which is why many of them have disappeared over time.

15.   Glimpse - (noun) a brief or partial view or understanding of something.Example: The geoglyphs provide a fascinating glimpse into the minds of their creators and their perception of the landscape.

16.   Chalk - (noun) a soft, white, porous sedimentary rock composed of calcium carbonate.Example: The geoglyphs were revealed by removing the overlying grass to expose the gleaming white chalk below.

17.   Faded - (verb) lost intensity, strength, or prominence over time.Example: As the traditions associated with the hill figures faded, people stopped clearing away the grass to maintain the outlines.

18.   Quarters - (noun) sections or areas, usually referring to specific divisions of a town, city, or region.Example: The Uffington White Horse is located in the quarter of the Vale of the White Horse, named after the geoglyph.

19.   Adjacent - (adjective) next to or adjoining something; neighboring.Example: The Uffington White Horse is situated adjacent to the Late Bronze Age hillfort of Uffington Castle.

20.   Impression - (noun) an effect or understanding resulting from an experience or observation.Example: From certain areas in the Vale of the White Horse, one can gain an adequate impression of the Uffington White Horse.

21.   Attest - (verb) provide evidence or proof of something; bear witness.Example: The depictions of the Uffington White Horse on ancient jewelry and objects attest to its significance during the Bronze and Iron Ages.

22.   Imported - (verb) brought in from a foreign country or source.Example: The cult of Epona, associated with the horse goddess, was imported from Gaul (France) in the first century CE.

23.   Tribal - (adjective) relating to or characteristic of a tribe or tribes.Example: The Uffington White Horse may have been a tribal emblem representing the people living in the hillfort.

24.   Melts - (verb) blends or merges harmoniously into something else.Example: The Uffington White Horse almost melts into the landscape, appearing seamlessly integrated with its surroundings.

25.   Goddess - (noun) a female deity or divine being, often associated with specific qualities or powers.Example: The Uffington White Horse has been connected to the worship of horse goddesses like Epona or Rhiannon.

26.   Depictions - (noun) representations or portrayals of something.Example: The Uffington White Horse had depictions on ancient jewelry and metal objects.

27.   Ritual - (noun) a religious or solemn ceremony consisting of a series of actions performed in a specific order.Example: The carving of the Uffington White Horse may have been carried out during a Bronze or Iron Age ritual.

28.   Native - (adjective) belonging to or associated with a particular place or region by birth or origin.Example: The Uffington White Horse carving may represent a goddess in native mythology.

29.   Mythology - (noun) a collection of myths, stories, or legends that explain the beliefs or customs of a particular culture or group.Example: Rhiannon is a figure described in later Welsh mythology as a woman riding a white horse.

30.   Gesture - (noun) a movement, action, or expression that conveys an idea or intention.Example: Geoglyphs were temporary gestures created by removing grass to reveal the chalk outlines.

31.   Creators - (noun) individuals or beings who bring something into existence.Example: The giant carvings offer insight into the minds of their creators and their perception of the landscape.

32.   Maintain - (verb) preserve, keep in good condition, or sustain.Example: People would regularly clean or scour the hill figures to maintain the visibility of the chalk outlines.

33.   Continuity - (noun) the state of remaining consistent, uninterrupted, or connected over time.Example: The survival of ancient hill figures in England today demonstrates the continuity of local customs and beliefs.

34.   Beliefs - (noun) ideas or convictions that individuals or communities hold to be true or valid.Example: The longevity of hill figures reflects the strength and importance of local customs and beliefs.

35.   Enigmatic - (adjective) mysterious, puzzling, or difficult to understand.Example: The Long Man of Wilmington in Sussex remains enigmatic, with different theories about its origin and age.

36.   Pre-Roman - (adjective) referring to a period or time before the Roman Empire or Roman influence.Example: The Uffington White Horse has been shown to be even older than its previously assigned ancient pre-Roman Iron Age date.

37.   Controversial - (adjective) causing disagreement or discussion; debatable.Example: The date of the Long Man of Wilmington remains controversial, with differing opinions among historians.

38.   Monk - (noun) a member of a religious community, typically living in a monastery, dedicated to prayer and contemplation.Example: Some believe that the Long Man of Wilmington was the work of an artistic monk from a nearby priory.

39.   Revealed - (verb) made visible or known; disclosed or uncovered.Example: The method of cutting the hill figures involved removing the grass to reveal the chalk underneath.

40.   Gleaming - (adjective) shining brightly; radiant.Example: The geoglyphs were created by removing the grass to expose the gleaming white chalk.

41.   Scoured - (verb) cleaned or scrubbed by rubbing forcefully.Example: The hill figures needed to be regularly scoured to prevent the grass from growing back over them.

42.   Associations - (noun) connections or relationships with something else; links.Example: The Uffington White Horse has associations with the nearby hillfort and Bronze Age burial mounds.

43.   Emblem - (noun) a symbol or sign that represents or identifies a particular group, organization, or concept.Example: The Uffington White Horse may have served as a tribal emblem for the inhabitants of the hillfort.

44.   Ritual - (adjective) relating to a religious or solemn ceremony with a set order of actions.Example: The carving of the Uffington White Horse might have been part of a ritual performed during ancient times.

45.   Significance - (noun) importance, meaning, or relevance.Example: The Uffington White Horse held ritual and economic significance during the Bronze and Iron Ages.

46.   Jewelry - (noun) decorative items worn as personal adornment, typically made of precious metals and gemstones.Example: The Uffington White Horse was depicted on ancient jewelry and metal objects from the past.

Passge -2 I contain multitudes

1.       Ubiquitous - (adjective) present or found everywhere.Example: Microbes are ubiquitous and can be found in various environments, from soil to water to the human body.

2.       Peril - (noun) serious and immediate danger.Example: Yong warns that we mess with microbes at our peril, as they play a crucial role in our ecosystem and health.

3.       Microbiome - (noun) the community of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses, etc.) that inhabit a particular environment or organism.Example: Each individual, including humans, has their own unique microbiome consisting of various microbes.

4.       Holobiont - (noun) a unit consisting of a host organism and its associated microbial communities.Example: Some scientists propose that each species and its microbes should be considered a single holobiont.

5.       Context - (noun) the circumstances or setting in which something occurs, and that can influence its meaning or interpretation.Example: Microbes that are harmless in one context may become harmful if they enter the bloodstream.

6.       Galaxy - (noun) a system of millions or billions of stars, along with gas, dust, and other celestial objects, held together by gravitational attraction.Example: The human gut contains more microbes than there are stars in the galaxy, highlighting their abundance.

7.       Swallow - (verb) to take into the stomach through the throat; ingest.Example: With every meal, we unintentionally swallow a large number of microbes present in the food we consume.

8.       Enthralling - (adjective) captivating or fascinating; holding one's attention completely.Example: Yong's writing style is enthralling, making complex science accessible and engaging.

9.       Microscope - (noun) an optical instrument used for magnifying objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye.Example: Antony van Leeuwenhoek, using his own-designed microscopes, was the first to observe microbes in the 1670s.

10.   Potent - (adjective) having great power, influence, or effect.Example: Microbes, despite their small size, can have potent effects on the environment and living organisms.

11.   Allergies - (noun) a damaging immune response by the body to a substance to which it has become hypersensitive.Example: Disruptions in the bacterial balance due to hygiene practices and diets may contribute to the rising rates of allergies.

12.   Unraveling - (verb) discovering, understanding, or explaining something complex or mysterious.Example: Ongoing research is unraveling the many ways in which bacteria contribute to various bodily functions and overall well-being.

13.   Destructive - (adjective) causing harm, damage, or destruction.Example: Disruptions in the bacterial balance caused by certain lifestyle factors can have destructive effects on health.

14.   Distaste - (noun) a feeling of dislike or aversion.Example: Some investigations in the microbial world may evoke distaste due to their unglamorous nature.

15.  

16.   Symbiotic - (adjective) involving a mutually beneficial relationship between different organisms.Example: The relationship between humans and certain bacteria in their gut is symbiotic, benefiting both parties.

17.   Low-fiber - (adjective) referring to a diet that lacks an adequate amount of dietary fiber.Example: Unhealthy, low-fiber diets can disrupt the balance of bacteria in the gut and contribute to health problems.

18.   Unveiling - (noun) the act of revealing or making something known or visible.Example: Ongoing research is unveiling the intricate connections between the microbiome and various aspects of human health.

19.   Antibacterial - (adjective) having the ability to destroy or inhibit the growth of bacteria.Example: Overuse of antibacterial products may disrupt the natural microbial balance and have unintended consequences.

20.   Predators - (noun) animals that hunt, kill, and feed on other animals.Example: Some organisms have evolved protective relationships with bacteria to ward off predators.

21.   Neonatal - (adjective) relating to newborn infants, especially during the first few weeks after birth.Example: A neonatal hospital ward coated with beneficial microbes may provide a healthier environment for newborns.

22.   Cocktail - (noun) a mixture of different substances or ingredients.Example: The walls of future buildings could be constructed with a specially mixed cocktail of microbes to combat infections.

23.   Epidemic - (noun) a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time.Example: The use of bacteria-loaded mosquitoes to combat dengue fever is an attempt to control the epidemic.

24.   Fungus - (noun) a type of organism that includes mushrooms, yeasts, and molds, often associated with decomposition and disease.Example: A fungal infection is causing the decline of frog populations, and a rare microbial bacterium may provide a solution.

25.   Nurture - (verb) to care for, protect, and encourage the growth or development of something.Example: Some products, like yoghurts and drinks, claim to nurture the growth of "friendly" bacteria in the body.

26.   Disrupting - (verb) causing interruption or disturbance to a process or balance. Example: The overuse of antibiotics can disrupt the natural balance of microbes in the gut.

27.   Allergies - (noun) a condition in which the immune system reacts abnormally to certain substances, resulting in symptoms such as sneezing, itching, or difficulty breathing. Example: The disruption of the bacterial balance in the gut has been linked to the rising rates of allergies in recent years.

28.   Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) - (noun) a group of chronic disorders characterized by inflammation of the digestive tract, including conditions like Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Example: The alteration of the microbiome has been implicated in the development of inflammatory bowel disease.

29.   Dengue fever - (noun) a viral infection transmitted by mosquitoes, causing high fever, severe headache, and joint pain. Example: Scientists are exploring ways to use bacteria to prevent the spread of dengue fever by infected mosquitoes.

30.   Microscope - (noun) an optical instrument used for magnifying small objects or organisms that are not visible to the naked eye. Example: Antony van Leeuwenhoek used a microscope to discover the existence of microorganisms in the 17th century.

31.   Germ theory - (noun) the concept that certain diseases are caused by the presence and growth of specific microorganisms. Example: Louis Pasteur's germ theory revolutionized our understanding of infectious diseases.

32.   Hygiene - (noun) conditions or practices that promote cleanliness and prevent the spread of disease. Example: Excessive focus on hygiene and the overuse of antibacterial products may disrupt the natural microbial balance.

33.   Enthusiasm - (noun) intense excitement or eagerness about something. Example: Ed Yong's enthusiasm for the microbial world is evident throughout his book.

34.   Unraveling - (verb) discovering or figuring out the complexities or secrets of something. Example: Ongoing research is unraveling the intricate interactions between the microbiome and human health.

35.   Case studies - (noun) detailed investigations or analyses of individual cases or examples. Example: The book presents various case studies that highlight the role of microbes in different ecosystems and organisms.

36.   Teeming - (adjective) abundantly filled or swarming with something. Example: The drop of water from the lake was teeming with microorganisms.

37.   Context - (noun) the circumstances or setting in which something exists or occurs, and that can affect its meaning or interpretation. Example: Microbes that are harmless in their natural context can become pathogenic in certain environments.

38.   Symbiotic - (adjective) involving a close and mutually beneficial relationship between different organisms. Example: The relationship between humans and their gut microbes is symbiotic, with both parties benefiting from the association.

39.   Obesity - (noun) a medical condition characterized by excessive accumulation of body fat. Example: Recent research suggests that certain types of gut bacteria may influence an individual's susceptibility to obesity.

40.   Norms - (noun) accepted or expected standards or patterns of behavior. Example: New research challenges the established norms regarding the role and importance of certain bacteria in our environment.

41.   Unappealing - (adjective) not attractive or pleasant. Example: Some of the case studies discussed in the book may be unappealing due to the nature of the microbial investigations.

42.   Enthusiasm - (noun) intense excitement or interest in something. Example: Ed Yong's enthusiasm for the microbial world shines through his writing.

43.   Manipulate - (verb) to handle or control in a skillful manner, often for a specific purpose. Example: Scientists can manipulate microbial communities to study their effects on human health.

44.   Cocktail - (noun) a mixture or combination of different elements or ingredients. Example: A specially formulated cocktail of microbes could be used to enhance the health of newborns in a neonatal hospital ward.

Passage -3 How to make wise decisions

1.        Revered - (adjective) highly respected and admired. Example: Wisdom has long been revered as a valuable human quality in many cultures.

2.      Empirical - (adjective) based on observation, experience, or data. Example: The research on wisdom is based on empirical studies that examine real-world situations.

3.      Trait - (noun) a characteristic or quality that distinguishes a person. Example: Wisdom is not simply a trait possessed by a select few individuals, but can be influenced by various factors.

4.      Experiential - (adjective) relating to or derived from experience. Example: Experiential factors play a significant role in shaping an individual's ability to reason wisely.

5.      Situational - (adjective) relating to or determined by the circumstances or context. Example: Wisdom can vary depending on the situational factors and the specific context in which decisions are made.

6.      Cumulatively - (adverb) by accumulating or adding together over time. Example: The cumulative findings from various psychological fields provide insights into the understanding of wisdom.

7.      Unfolds - (verb) develops or reveals gradually over time. Example: Wisdom is not a fixed quality but unfolds in response to the situations people find themselves in.

8.      Framework - (noun) a basic structure or conceptual framework used for understanding or organizing information. Example: Grossmann and his colleagues have identified four key characteristics as part of their framework for wise reasoning.

9.      Humility - (noun) a modest or low view of one's importance or abilities. Example: Intellectual humility, recognizing the limits of our own knowledge, is an essential aspect of wise reasoning.

10.   Compromise - (noun) an agreement or settlement reached through mutual concession. Example: Wise reasoning involves the willingness to consider different attitudes and beliefs and find a compromise.

11.      Perspectives - (noun) a particular way of regarding or understanding something; a point of view. Example: Wise reasoning involves appreciating perspectives wider than the immediate issue at hand.

12.    Sensitivity - (noun) the ability to be aware of and understand the feelings and needs of others. Example: Sensitivity to the possibility of change in social relations is an important characteristic of wise reasoning.

13.    Impartiality - (noun) the quality of being fair and unbiased; treating all sides or parties equally. Example: Wise reasoning involves considering moral ideals such as justice and impartiality.

14.   Egocentric - (adjective) centered or focused on oneself; self-centered. Example: Couples who adopted an egocentric perspective during a conflict discussion showed less wise reasoning.

15.   Decentering - (noun) the act of shifting focus away from oneself and considering other perspectives. Example: Ego-decentering allows for a broader view of the experience and facilitates wise reasoning.

16.   Crystallized - (adjective) referring to acquired knowledge or skills that are based on experience and learning. Example: There is a small positive relationship between wise thinking and crystallized intelligence.

17.    Openness - (noun) a personality trait characterized by a willingness to experience new things, be receptive to new ideas, and be open-minded. Example: Wise reasoning is associated with the personality trait of openness to new perspectives.

18.   Agreeableness - (noun) a personality trait characterized by being friendly, cooperative, and compassionate. Example: Wise reasoning is also positively correlated with the personality trait of agreeableness.

19.   Retaliate - (verb) to respond to an attack or harm by inflicting a similar action in return. Example: Understanding how wise judgment relates to a person's likelihood to retaliate is important in studying wisdom.

20. Generalized - (adjective) not specific or limited to a particular context; applying broadly. Example: Knowing how wisely a person behaves in a given situation is more informative than assessing their generalized wisdom.

21.    Cumulatively - (adverb) in a way that accumulates or adds up over time; collectively. Example: Recent empirical findings from various fields of psychology cumulatively suggest that contextual factors shape wisdom.

22.  Unresolved - (adjective) not resolved or settled; lacking a final decision or solution. Example: Couples in long-term relationships were asked to visualize an unresolved conflict for the study.

23.  Affective - (adjective) relating to emotions, moods, or feelings. Example: Understanding wise judgment in different situations provides insights into its social and affective outcomes.

24. Likelihood - (noun) the probability or chance of something happening or being true. Example: Assessing how wisely a person behaves can inform their likelihood to forgive or retaliate.

25. Traits - (noun) distinguishing qualities or characteristics of a person; personal attributes. Example: The contextual effects on wise judgment are stronger in understanding social and affective outcomes compared to generalized traits.

26. Enhanced - (adjective) improved or increased in quality, value, or effectiveness. Example: Understanding contextual factors can offer insights into how wisdom can be enhanced and taught.

27.  Revered - (adjective) regarded with deep respect, admiration, or awe. Example: Wisdom has been considered one of the most revered human qualities across cultures.

28. Framework - (noun) a basic structure or set of principles used as a guide for understanding or organizing something. Example: Grossmann and his colleagues developed a framework of wise reasoning based on four key characteristics.

29. Negotiating - (verb) engaging in discussions or bargaining to reach an agreement or compromise. Example: Negotiating a contract at work can be a situation that requires wise reasoning.

30. Empirical - (adjective) based on or derived from observation, experience, or data. Example: Recent empirical research has shed light on the factors influencing wise reasoning.

31.    Experiential - (adjective) relating to or based on experience or observation. Example: Experiential factors play a significant role in shaping an individual's ability to reason wisely.

32.  Compromise - (noun/verb) an agreement or settlement in which each side gives up some demands or makes concessions. Example: Wise reasoning involves the ability to find compromise or integrate different attitudes and beliefs.

33.  Unfolds - (verb) develops or reveals gradually over time. Example: Wisdom is not solely an "inner quality" but unfolds as a function of the situational context.

34. Egocentric - (adjective) focused or centered on oneself; self-centered. Example: Couples in the egocentric condition were less likely to rely on wise reasoning during the discussion.

35. Intellectual humility - (noun) the recognition of the limits of one's own knowledge and the willingness to accept and learn from others. Example: Intellectual humility is one of the key characteristics of wise reasoning.

36. Visualization - (noun) the act of forming mental images or representations. Example: Participants were instructed to visualize an unresolved conflict from a third-party perspective.

37.  Generalized - (adjective) applied or applicable to a wide range of situations, not specific to one instance. Example: Knowing how wisely a person behaves in a given situation is more informative than knowing their wisdom "in general."

38. Recognition - (noun) the act of acknowledging or identifying someone or something as known or previously encountered. Example: Wise reasoning involves the recognition of change and the limits of one's own knowledge.

39. Contextual - (adjective) relating to or depending on the context or circumstances. Example: Wisdom is shaped by various contextual factors, such as experience and situational context.

40. Crystallized intelligence - (noun) the accumulated knowledge, skills, and expertise acquired through learning and experience. Example: Wise thinking shows only a small positive relationship with crystallized intelligence.

41.   Affective - (adjective) relating to emotions or moods. Example: Contextual effects are more informative for understanding the relationship between wise judgment and its affective outcomes.

42. Outcomes - (noun) the results or consequences of an action or event. Example: Understanding wise judgment in different situations helps predict the social and affective outcomes.

43. Retaliate - (verb) to take revenge or respond to an attack or harm in kind. Example: Knowing how wisely a person behaves can help predict their likelihood to forgive or retaliate.

44. Conceptual - (adjective) relating to or based on concepts or abstract ideas. Example: Ego-decentering enables a bigger picture, conceptual view of the experience.

45. Informative - (adjective) providing useful or valuable information. Example: Knowing how wisely a person behaves in a given situation is informative for understanding their emotions.

46. Traits - (noun) distinguishing qualities or characteristics of a person. Example: Contextual effects are stronger in understanding wise judgment than generalized personality traits.

47.  Likelihood - (noun) the probability or chance of something happening. Example: Understanding wise judgment can help predict the likelihood of forgiving or retaliating.

48. Concessions - (noun) something granted or yielded in response to a demand or request. Example: Wise reasoning involves making concessions and finding middle ground in a disagreement.

49. Wider - (adjective) more extensive or comprehensive in scope or range. Example: Wise reasoning involves appreciating perspectives wider than the issue at hand.

50. Enhanced - (adjective) improved or increased in quality, value, or effectiveness. Example: Understanding the contextual factors can provide insights into how wisdom can be enhanced and taught.

Test-3

Roman shipbuilding and navigation

1.       Shipbuilding: The process of constructing ships. Example: Shipbuilding today relies on advanced technology and sophisticated tools.

2.       Science: The systematic study of the natural world through observation and experimentation. Example: Shipbuilding today is based on science and uses computer models.

3.       Computers: Electronic devices that can store, retrieve, and process data. Example: Ships are now designed using powerful computers.

4.       Sophisticated: Complex, advanced, or highly developed. Example: Modern shipbuilding tools are highly sophisticated and precise.

5.       Art: A skill or craftsmanship that involves creativity and imagination. Example: Ancient Roman shipbuilding was considered more of an art than a science.

6.       Estimation: An approximate calculation or educated guess. Example: The ancient Romans relied on estimation when building ships.

7.       Inherited: Received or passed down from previous generations. Example: The ancient Romans used inherited shipbuilding techniques from conquered civilizations.

8.       Techniques: Methods or procedures used to accomplish a specific task. Example: Ancient shipbuilding relied on techniques passed down through generations.

9.       Experience: Knowledge or skills acquired through practical involvement in a particular activity. Example: The ancient Romans relied on personal experience to build ships.

10.   Traditionally: According to customs or practices followed over a long period of time. Example: The ancient Romans were not traditionally seafaring people.

11.   Sailors: Individuals who navigate and operate ships or boats. Example: The ancient Romans were mostly land-based people and not traditionally sailors.

12.   Conquered: Defeated and taken control of by force. Example: The Romans learned shipbuilding from the people they conquered.

13.   Greeks: People from ancient Greece, known for their advancements in various fields. Example: The ancient Romans learned shipbuilding techniques from the Greeks.

14.   Egyptians: People from ancient Egypt, known for their civilization and expertise in various fields. Example: The ancient Romans also learned shipbuilding techniques from the Egyptians.

15.   Surviving: Existing or remaining in existence. Example: There are a few surviving written documents about ancient Roman ships.

16.   Descriptions: Detailed explanations or accounts of something. Example: The written documents provide descriptions of ancient Roman ships.

17.   Representations: Visual or graphic depictions. Example: The documents contain representations of ancient Roman ships' sails and rigging.

18.   Excavated: Unearthed or dug up from the ground. Example: Excavated vessels have provided clues about ancient shipbuilding techniques.

19.   Clues: Pieces of evidence or information that help solve a problem or mystery. Example: The clues from excavated vessels shed light on ancient shipbuilding methods.

20.   Outer: Located on the outside or external part. Example: Ancient Roman shipbuilders built the outer hull first.

21.   Frame: The structural skeleton or framework of a ship. Example: After the outer hull, the shipbuilders proceeded with constructing the frame.

22.   Planks: Long, flat pieces of wood used in ship construction. Example: Planks were sewn together to build the outer hull of ancient Roman ships.

23.   Sewn: Joined or connected

24.   Method: A systematic or organized way of doing something. Example: Shipbuilders used a method called mortise and tenon to fix the planks together.

25.   Mortise and tenon: A method of joining pieces of wood without stitching, where one plank locks into another. Example: The shipbuilders used mortise and tenon to securely fix the planks of the ship.

26.   Systematic: Following a specific plan or method in a thorough and organized manner. Example: The new shipbuilding method was more systematic and efficient.

27.   Construction: The act or process of building or assembling something. Example: The new shipbuilding method dramatically shortened ship construction times.

28.   Merchant ships: Ships used for transporting goods or cargo. Example: Ancient Roman shipbuilders built large merchant ships for trade.

29.   Unequalled: Not surpassed or exceeded by anyone or anything. Example: The size and technology of Roman warships were unequalled until the 16th century.

30.   Warships: Ships designed and used for warfare. Example: Roman warships were built to be lightweight and fast.

31.   Ballast: Heavy material used to stabilize a ship. Example: Unlike merchant ships, warships had no ballast or excess load.

32.   Narrow: Not wide, limited in width. Example: Warships had a narrow hull to enhance their speed.

33.   Crippled: Severely damaged or disabled. Example: After naval battles, warships would often lie crippled on the sea's surface.

34.   Battering ram: A large, heavy object used to crash into or break through barriers. Example: Warships were equipped with a battering ram to damage enemy vessels.

35.   Pierce: To penetrate or go through something. Example: The battering ram was used to pierce the timber hulls of enemy ships.

36.   Oars: Long poles used for rowing a boat or ship. Example: Warships used human power, with rowers operating the oars.

37.   Fast: Quick, able to move at high speeds. Example: Roman warships were very fast and could swiftly maneuver.

38.   Navy: A fleet of ships used for military purposes. Example: Rome's navy became the largest and most powerful in the Mediterranean.

39.   Mare Nostrum: Latin for "our sea," referring to the Mediterranean Sea. Example: The Romans called the Mediterranean Sea Mare Nostrum as they gained control over it.

40.   Trireme: A type of ancient warship with three levels of rowers. Example: The trireme was the dominant warship from the 7th to the 4th century BCE.

41.   Uncomfortable: Not providing comfort, causing discomfort or unease. Example: The rowers at the bottom of the trireme had the most uncomfortable position.

42.   Slaves: People who are owned by others and forced to work without freedom. Example: Contrary to popular perception, rowers in ancient Roman warships were not slaves.

43.   Enrolled: Officially registered or entered into a program or organization. Example: Most rowers in ancient Roman warships were enrolled Roman citizens.

44.   Superseded: Replaced or surpassed by something newer or better. Example: The trireme was superseded by larger ships with more rowers.

45.   Merchant ships: Ships used for transporting goods or cargo. Example: Merchant ships were designed to carry a large amount of cargo over long distances.

46.   Cargo: Goods or products being transported by a ship. Example: Merchant ships carried various types of cargo, including raw materials and agricultural products.

47.   Stability: The state of being steady or firmly fixed in place. Example: Merchant ships had a solid interior for added stability during voyages.

48.   Rudders: Flat, movable plates used to steer a ship. Example: Merchant ships had two large side rudders for steering.

49.   Quay: A structure built along the shore to facilitate the loading and unloading of ships. Example: Towboats would drag the merchant ships to the quay upon arrival at the destination port.

50.   Landmarks: Prominent or easily recognizable features used for navigation. Example: Roman mariners used landmarks to navigate when they had good visibility.

51.   Navigation: The process of planning and controlling the movement of a ship or boat. Example: Navigation in ancient Rome relied on landmarks and natural phenomena.

52.   Compasses: Navigational instruments used to determine direction. Example: Unlike modern navigation, ancient Roman mariners did not have sophisticated compasses.

53.   Observation: The act of closely watching or monitoring something. Example: Ancient Roman mariners relied on careful observation of natural phenomena for navigation.

54.   Visibility: The degree to which objects or landmarks can be seen. Example: Good visibility made navigation easier for ancient Roman seamen.

55.   Swell: The rolling or heaving movement of the sea. Example: Ancient mariners estimated directions relative to the wind and swell.

56.   Vessels: General term for ships or boats. Example: Excavated vessels have provided valuable insights into ancient shipbuilding techniques.

57.   Roman Empire: The vast territories and dominions ruled by ancient Rome. Example: The Roman Empire was a powerful force in the ancient world.

58.   Empire: A group of territories or nations under a single authority or ruler. Example: The Roman Empire encompassed a vast expanse of land and sea.

59.   Trade: The buying and selling of goods or services. Example: Merchant ships played a crucial role in facilitating international trade.

60.   Crossing: Traveling across a body of water. Example: Large vessels regularly made crossings across the seas during ancient Roman times.

Passage -2

Climate change reveals ancient artefacts in Norway’s glaciers

1.       Artefacts: Objects made by humans, typically of cultural or historical significance. Example: The melting ice in Norway's glaciers is revealing ancient artefacts such as arrows and skis.

2.       Preserved: Kept intact or protected from decay or destruction. Example: The extreme cold of the ice acted as a natural freezer, preserving the artefacts for thousands of years.

3.       Insights: New or deep understandings or perspectives. Example: The discovered artefacts have provided archaeologists with surprising insights into ancient Norwegian lifestyles.

4.       Microorganisms: Tiny organisms, often invisible to the naked eye. Example: Organic materials at archaeological sites are vulnerable to decay caused by microorganisms.

5.       Relatively: To a certain extent or compared to something else. Example: Extreme cold can relatively preserve organic materials for a few thousand years.

6.       Degradation: The process of breaking down or deteriorating. Example: Once thawed, organic materials experience degradation at a relatively swift pace.

7.       Covered: Hidden or protected by something. Example: An arrow might be exposed briefly and then covered again by the next snowfall.

8.       Unpredictability: Lack of predictability or the ability to foresee something. Example: The unpredictability of weather patterns poses challenges for glacial archaeologists.

9.       Systematic: Done or acting according to a fixed plan or system. Example: Glacial archaeologists need to be systematic in their approach to finding and studying newly revealed artefacts.

10.   Surveyed: Examined or investigated an area or group of things. Example: The team of archaeologists surveyed patches of ice in Oppland, Norway.

11.   Concentrated: Gathered or gathered together in a specific location. Example: Reindeer once congregated on the icy patches in Oppland during the summer months.

12.   Congregated: Gathered or gathered together in a group. Example: Reindeer once congregated on the icy patches in Oppland during the summer months.

13.   Traversing: Traveling across or through something. Example: Hunters used the items found to aid in traversing the high mountain passes.

14.   All-purpose: Suitable or useful for a wide range of purposes. Example: Hunters carried all-purpose items like tools, skis, and horse tack.

15.   Radiocarbon-dated: Determined the age of something using radiocarbon dating. Example: The team radiocarbon-dated 153 of the artefacts to determine their age.

16.   Environmental changes: Shifts or alterations in the natural surroundings or ecosystem. Example: The timing of major environmental changes in the region was compared to the dates of the artefacts.

17.   Economic shifts: Changes or transformations in the economy or economic conditions. Example: The team examined how major economic shifts aligned with the timing of the artefacts.

18.   Daunting: Intimidating or challenging. Example: Oppland's mountains present daunting terrain for archaeological exploration.

19.   Assumed: Accepted something as true without proof or verification. Example: Archaeologists assumed that people would stick to lower elevations during extreme cold periods.

20.   Supplement: Add to or enhance something to make it complete or sufficient. Example: Hunting may have increased to supplement failing agricultural harvests during times of low temperatures.

21.   Widespread: Happening or existing over a large area or among many people. Example: A colder turn in the climate would likely have led to widespread crop failures.

22.   Booming: Experiencing rapid growth or success. Example: The demand for hides and antlers was booming due to growing Norwegian towns and export markets.

23.   Retreating: Moving back or withdrawing. Example: As the ice retreats, archaeologists may extract more artefacts from the mountains in the future.

24.   Remote: Far away or located in a distant area. Example: Norway's ice patches in remote mountain areas are likely hiding a lot of history.

25.   Disintegrated: Broke apart or crumbled into small pieces. Example: Many artefacts from a certain period may have already disintegrated or remain frozen in the ice.

26.   Race the clock: Act quickly to accomplish something before time runs out. Example: Glacial archaeologists need to race the clock to find and preserve newly revealed artefacts.

27.   Environmental history: The study of past environments and their changes over time. Example: By studying the artefacts, archaeologists can uncover unique environmental history.

28.   Terrain: The physical features of an area or land. Example: Oppland's mountains present challenging terrain for archaeological exploration.

29.   Arctic: Relating to or characteristic of the regions around the North Pole. Example: The melting ice in the Arctic region is revealing ancient artefacts.

30.   BCE: An abbreviation for "Before Common Era," referring to years before the birth of Christ. Example: The artefacts discovered date back to the period from 4,000 BCE to the 14th century.

31.   Renaissance: A period of renewed interest and growth in arts, sciences, and culture. Example: The artefacts found spanned from the late Stone Age to the beginnings of the Renaissance.

32.   Venturing: Exploring or going on a journey, especially into unknown or risky territory. Example: Hunters kept venturing into the mountains despite extreme cold periods.

33.   Gap: A space or period where something is missing or lacking. Example: The researchers noticed a gap in the artefacts from a specific time period.

34.   Prehistory: The time before written records or documented history. Example: Norway's remote ice patches may hold valuable artefacts from both history and prehistory.

35.   Archaeological exploration: The process of investigating and studying ancient remains and artefacts. Example: The team engaged in archaeological exploration to uncover and analyze the artefacts.

36.   Material record: A collection of physical evidence or objects that provide insights into the past. Example: The discovered artefacts formed a valuable material record spanning several centuries.

37.   Demand: The desire or need for a particular item or service. Example: Growing Norwegian towns and export markets created a booming demand for hides.

38.   Terrain: The physical features of an area or land. Example: Oppland's mountains present challenging terrain for archaeological exploration.

39.   Retreating: Moving back or withdrawing. Example: As the ice retreats, archaeologists may extract more artefacts from the mountains in the future.

40.   Remote: Far away or located in a distant area. Example: Norway's ice patches in remote mountain areas are likely hiding a lot of history.

41.   Uncovered: Revealed or exposed. Example: The melting ice has uncovered ancient artefacts that were previously hidden.

42.   Camping: Staying outdoors in a tent or temporary shelter. Example: The archaeologists often had to go camping on permafrost during their fieldwork.

43.   Natural environment: The surrounding or existing conditions of the natural world. Example: Glacial archaeologists connect with the natural environment while studying the melting ice.

44.   Concentrated: Gathered or brought together in a specific area. Example: Reindeer once concentrated on the icy patches in Oppland during the summer months.

45.   Harvests: The gathering or collection of crops or other resources. Example: Hunters may have increased their activity during times of low agricultural harvests.

46.   Expansion: The act or process of becoming larger or more extensive. Example: The discoveries indicate the expansion of trade networks during the Viking Age.

47.   Overland routes: Paths or passages over land, as opposed to by sea or air. Example: Goods were transported through overland routes like the mountain passes of Oppland.

48.   Combs: Objects used for grooming or styling hair. Example: Antlers were used to make practical items like combs during the Viking Age.

49.   History: The study or record of past events, particularly in human affairs. Example: Glacial archaeologists are uncovering a hidden history through their findings.

50.   Extracting: Removing or taking out something. Example: As the ice retreats, archaeologists can start extracting artefacts from previously frozen areas.

51.   Archaeological finds: Discoveries or objects of historical or cultural significance. Example: Artefacts from the 3,800 to 2,200 BCE period are rare archaeological finds in Norway.

52.   Frozen: Preserved or locked in ice or a frozen state. Example: Some artefacts may still be frozen in the ice, waiting to be discovered.

53.   Challenges: Difficulties or obstacles that require effort to overcome. Example: Glacial archaeologists face challenges due to the unpredictability of weather conditions.

54.   Permafrost: Permanently frozen ground or soil. Example: The archaeologists often had to camp on permafrost during their fieldwork.

55.   Environmental shifts: Changes or transitions in the natural environment. Example: The team analyzed how major environmental shifts correlated with the timing of artefacts.

56.   Alignment: A state of agreement or harmony. Example: The team observed the alignment between major economic shifts and the artefacts discovered.

57.   Colder turn: A shift or transition towards colder temperatures. Example: A colder turn in the climate would have had significant impacts on agriculture.

58.   Unique: One of a kind or distinctive. Example: The melting ice provides a unique opportunity to uncover ancient artefacts.

59.   Alignment: A state of agreement or harmony. Example: The team observed the alignment between major economic shifts and the artefacts discovered.

60.   Retreating ice: The shrinking or melting of ice formations. Example: The retreating ice in Norway's glaciers is revealing hidden artefacts.

Passage -3

Plant ‘thermometer’ triggers springtime growth by measuring night-time heat

41.   Thermometer molecule: A molecule in plants that functions as a temperature gauge. Example: The discovery of the thermometer molecule in plants sheds light on their response to temperature changes.

42.   Phytochromes: Molecules used by plants to detect light during the day. Example: Phytochromes change their function in darkness to become temperature gauges.

43.   Genetic switches: Mechanisms that control the activation or deactivation of genes. Example: Phytochromes control genetic switches in response to temperature and light.

44.   Pace: Speed or rate of change. Example: The pace at which phytochromes change is directly proportional to temperature.

45.   Stimulating: Triggering or promoting. Example: The molecular change of phytochromes at warmer temperatures stimulates plant growth.

46.   Responsive: Reacting or sensitive to something. Example: Plants are highly responsive to temperature changes, which affects their development.

47.   Pinpoints: Identifies or locates precisely. Example: The research pinpoints the molecular mechanism in plants that responds to temperature.

48.   Mechanism: A system or process. Example: The newly discovered mechanism in plants reacts to temperature, influencing their growth.

49.   Predict: Forecast or anticipate. Example: Farmers have long used plant responses to temperature to predict weather and harvest times.

50.   Breeding: Selective reproduction to produce desired traits. Example: Understanding the molecular mechanisms can help breed crops resilient to climate change.

51.   Thermal stress: Pressure or strain caused by high temperatures. Example: Crops are sensitive to thermal stress, which reduces their yields in high temperatures.

52.   Resilient: Able to withstand or recover from challenges. Example: The discovery can accelerate the breeding of resilient crops against thermal stress.

53.   Active state: The condition of being engaged or functioning. Example: In their active state, phytochrome molecules restrict plant growth.

54.   Inactivated: Rendered inactive or deactivated. Example: Phytochromes are inactivated when plants are in shade, allowing faster growth.

55.   Compete: Strive or vie for superiority. Example: Plants compete to escape each other's shade by growing faster.

56.   Reversion: The act of returning to a previous state. Example: During the night, phytochromes undergo reversion from their active to inactive state.

57.   Growth-suppressing: Inhibiting or restraining growth. Example: Phytochromes spend more time in their active, growth-suppressing state at lower temperatures.

58.   Expressed: Activated or manifested. Example: In the inactive state, genes can be expressed and plant growth can resume.

59.   Dual role: Having two functions or purposes. Example: The discovery of the dual role of phytochromes explains plant development based on temperature and light.

60.   Seasonal timing: The determination of the appropriate timing for seasonal events. Example: Some plants use temperature or day length to determine their seasonal timing.

61.   Model system: A simplified or representative system used for research or experimentation. Example: The mustard plant Arabidopsis was used as a model system to study the role of phytochromes in temperature sensing.

62.   Crop plants: Plants cultivated for agricultural purposes. Example: The phytochrome genes responsible for temperature sensing are also found in crop plants.

63.   Advances: Progress or developments in a particular field. Example: Recent advances in plant genetics have allowed scientists to identify and manipulate genes in crop plants.

64.   Precise: Exact or accurate. Example: Scientists can use precise molecular tools to alter the activity of genes in plants.

65.   Collaborators: Individuals or groups who work together on a project. Example: The research involved collaborators from Germany, Argentina, the US, and the University of Cambridge.

66.   Applied aspects: Practical or real-world applications. Example: Cambridge's collaborators work on applied aspects of plant biology, aiding the transfer of knowledge into the field.

67.   Transfer: Move or apply something to a different context. Example: The collaborative effort aims to transfer the newfound knowledge into practical applications in agriculture.

68.   Outstanding: Exceptional or remarkable. Example: Cambridge is uniquely positioned for this research due to its outstanding nearby collaborators.

69.   Field: The practical or real-world application of a particular subject or study. Example: The research aims to translate knowledge from the laboratory into the agricultural field.

70.   Scalpels: Precise surgical instruments used for cutting. Example: Advances in plant genetics allow scientists to manipulate genes using precise molecular scalpels.

71.   Mustard plant: The Arabidopsis plant, commonly referred to as a mustard plant, is a small flowering plant used as a model organism in scientific research. Example: The researchers conducted their experiments on the mustard plant Arabidopsis to study the role of phytochromes in temperature sensing.

72.   Temperature sensing: The ability of organisms to detect and respond to changes in temperature. Example: The discovery of phytochromes as cellular temperature gauges sheds light on the mechanisms of temperature sensing in plants.

73.   Gene expression: The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein. Example: When phytochromes detach from the plant's DNA, genes are expressed, and gene expression resumes, leading to plant growth.

74.   Dual role: Having two distinct functions or responsibilities. Example: The discovery of the dual role of phytochromes as light sensors and temperature gauges provides valuable insights into plant development.

75.   Seasonal timing: The specific timing of events or processes that occur in relation to the seasons. Example: Different plant species have different mechanisms for determining their seasonal timing, with some relying more on temperature cues and others on day length.

76.   Oak before ash, we'll have a splash, ash before oak, we're in for a soak: A traditional rhyme used to predict the coming season based on the order of leafing between oak and ash trees. Example: The discovery of phytochromes as thermometers supports the accuracy of the rhyme "oak before ash, we'll have a splash, ash before oak, we're in for a soak" in predicting the seasonal outcome.

77.   Hot summer: A summer season characterized by high temperatures. Example: If oak trees leaf before ash trees, it indicates a higher likelihood of a hot summer according to the traditional rhyme.

78.   Rain-soaked: Experiencing a significant amount of rain. Example: If ash trees leaf before oak trees, it suggests a higher chance of a rain-soaked summer based on the traditional rhyme.

79.   Breeding: The process of producing offspring or creating new varieties or species through controlled reproduction. Example: Understanding the molecular mechanisms of temperature sensing in plants can aid in the breeding of crops that are resilient to climate change.

80.   Tougher crops: Crop plants with increased resilience to various environmental stresses and challenges. Example: The knowledge gained from the study of phytochromes as temperature gauges can contribute to the development of tougher crops capable of withstanding thermal stress.

81.   Thermal stress: The negative effects experienced by organisms when they are exposed to extreme temperatures or temperature fluctuations. Example: Thermal stress caused by high temperatures can significantly reduce crop yields and productivity.

82.   Climate change: Long-term shifts and alterations in weather patterns and atmospheric conditions, primarily attributed to human activities. Example: The discovery of phytochromes as internal thermometers in plants has implications for understanding and adapting to the effects of climate change on crop growth and agriculture.

83.   Genetic switches: Molecular mechanisms or regulatory elements that control the activation or inactivation of genes. Example: Phytochromes function as genetic switches, responding to temperature and light cues to regulate plant development.

84.   Buds of spring: The small, undeveloped growth points on plants that develop into leaves, flowers, or shoots during the spring season. Example: The molecular mechanism discovered in this study helps explain the activation of buds of spring in response to temperature changes.

85.   Model system: A simplified and well-studied organism or experimental setup used to investigate specific biological phenomena. Example: The researchers used the Arabidopsis plant as a model system to study the role of phytochromes in temperature sensing before applying the findings to crop plants.

86.   Internal thermometer: The mechanism or molecule within an organism that detects and measures internal or external temperatures. Example: Phytochromes function as an internal thermometer in plant cells, allowing them to respond to nighttime temperature changes.

87.   Crop plants: Plants cultivated and grown for agricultural purposes, including food, fiber, and other commercial products. Example: The identification of phytochromes involved in temperature sensing is applicable to various crop plants, providing opportunities for breeding more resilient and productive varieties.

88.   Plant genetics: The study of genetic traits, inheritance, and variation in plant species. Example: Recent advances in plant genetics have enabled scientists to identify and manipulate genes involved in temperature sensing and response.

89.   Precise molecular "scalpels": Advanced molecular tools or techniques that allow specific and precise modifications or alterations at the genetic level. Example: With the use of precise molecular "scalpels", researchers can modify the activity of temperature-sensing genes in crop plants to enhance their resilience.

90.   Field: The practical application or implementation of scientific knowledge or research in real-world settings. Example: Collaborations with experts in applied plant biology facilitate the transfer of new knowledge about temperature sensing from the lab to the field for practical applications in agriculture.

Test-4

Passage -1   Roman tunnels

1. Qanat method: A method of tunnel construction developed by the Persians and later adopted by the Romans for creating water-supply tunnels. It involves digging vertical shafts at regular intervals and connecting them underground to create a tunnel. Example: The Persians and Romans utilized the qanat method to construct tunnels that provided water for human settlements and agriculture.

2. Shafts: Vertical openings or passages that are dug at regular intervals in tunnel construction. Example: The Roman qanat tunnels had shafts equipped with handholds and footholds for easy access.

3. Plumb line: A weighted string or line used as a vertical reference to ensure that structures, such as shafts in tunnel construction, are perfectly vertical. Example: The Romans used plumb lines to ensure the verticality of the shafts and measure the depth and slope of the tunnels.

4. Claudius tunnel: A 5.6-kilometer-long tunnel built by the Romans in 41 CE to drain the Fucine Lake in central Italy. Example: The Claudius tunnel required 11 years and approximately 30,000 workers to complete, with shafts reaching depths of up to 122 meters.

5. Counter-excavation method: A tunnel construction method where the tunnel is simultaneously dug from both ends, typically used for cutting through high mountains. Example: The counter-excavation method was employed by the Romans when the qanat method was not feasible, requiring precise planning and coordination to ensure the tunnels met correctly at the center of the mountain.

6. Saldae aqueduct system: A Roman aqueduct system in modern-day Algeria, which included a 428-meter tunnel built using the counter-excavation method. Example: The Saldae aqueduct system features an inscription on the side of one tunnel, describing how the two teams of builders missed each other initially and how a lateral link corrected the error.

7. Mineral extraction: The process of extracting valuable minerals or ores from the earth. Example: Romans used tunnels for mineral extraction, following mineral veins and creating shafts and tunnels to access them.

8. Dolaucothi mines: Ancient Roman gold mines located in Wales, where traces of tunnels used for mining can still be found today. Example: The Dolaucothi mines contain evidence of Roman tunneling for gold extraction.

9. Fire quenching: A technique employed by the Romans to excavate through hard rock, involving heating the rock with fire and rapidly cooling it with water to induce cracking. Example: The Romans used fire quenching to aid in the excavation of tunnels through hard rock, accelerating the process by creating cracks.

10. Construction marks: Inscriptions or markings left on tunnels by the Romans, often indicating the names of patrons who ordered the construction and sometimes the name of the architect. Example: Many Roman tunnels had construction marks that provided information about the construction timeline and the individuals involved.

1. Rate of advance: The speed at which the construction of a tunnel progresses, measured in terms of distance covered per unit of time. Example: The rate of advance through solid rock in the Roman tunnel in Bologna was approximately 30 centimeters per day.

2. Inscriptions: Writings or carvings found on the entrances or walls of Roman tunnels, often containing information about the construction, such as the names of patrons, dates, and sometimes the names of architects. Example: The entrance of the Cevlik tunnel in Turkey still displays inscriptions indicating the start and completion dates of the tunnel construction.

3. Architect: A person responsible for designing and overseeing the construction of a tunnel. Example: The architect of a Roman tunnel played a crucial role in planning and ensuring the successful implementation of the construction project.

4. Cevlik tunnel: A 1.4-kilometer tunnel built by the Romans in Turkey to divert floodwater threatening the harbor of the ancient city of Seleuceia Pieria. Example: The Cevlik tunnel served the purpose of protecting the harbor from floodwater and featured inscriptions providing details about its construction timeline.

5. Excavation: The process of removing earth, rocks, or other materials to create a void or cavity, as done in tunnel construction. Example: The excavation process involved in Roman tunnel construction required skilled workers to remove the earth and rocks to create the desired tunnel shape.

6. Surveying: The practice of measuring and mapping the land to determine the alignment and dimensions of a tunnel. Example: The Romans relied on accurate surveying to ensure the proper alignment and trajectory of their tunnels.

7. Geometry: The branch of mathematics that deals with the properties and relationships of points, lines, angles, surfaces, and solids, often used in tunnel construction for calculations and measurements. Example: Advanced knowledge of geometry was necessary for Roman engineers to accurately plan the construction of tunnels and ensure their structural integrity.

8. Geological problems: Challenges or obstacles encountered during tunnel construction due to the nature of the rocks or geological formations in the area. Example: Roman builders had to address various geological problems such as unexpected rock formations or unstable strata while excavating tunnels.

9. Planning: The process of carefully organizing and arranging the steps, resources, and timelines required for tunnel construction. Example: Successful tunnel construction relied on thorough planning, taking into account factors such as construction methods, geological conditions, and available resources.

10. Rock type: The classification of the rocks encountered during tunnel construction, which could vary in hardness, composition, and structural properties. Example: The rock type influenced the construction time and techniques used in Roman tunnel projects, with harder rocks requiring additional methods like fire quenching.

11. Structural integrity: The ability of a tunnel to withstand external forces and maintain its stability over time. Example: The Romans paid close attention to ensure the structural integrity of their tunnels, employing various techniques and calculations to withstand potential collapses or damages.

1. Fire quenching: A technique employed by the Romans to excavate tunnels through hard rock. It involved heating the rock with fire and then rapidly cooling it with cold water, causing it to crack and facilitate excavation. Example: The Romans used the fire quenching technique to break up hard rock during the construction of tunnels, accelerating the excavation process.

2. Dolaucothi mines: Ancient gold mines located in Wales where Roman miners used tunnels to extract gold from mineral veins. Example: The Dolaucothi mines in Wales provide evidence of Roman tunnel construction specifically for mineral extraction purposes, particularly gold mining.

3. Counter-excavation method: A tunnel construction method where tunnels are simultaneously excavated from both ends, commonly used for cutting through high mountains. Example: When the qanat method was not feasible, the Romans employed the counter-excavation method to construct tunnels, especially when dealing with challenging mountainous terrains.

4. Tunnel mouths: The entrances or openings of tunnels where excavation work begins and ends. Example: The tunnel mouths served as access points for workers during the construction of Roman tunnels, and their locations were carefully determined based on the planned tunnel route.

5. Plumb line: A weighted string or cord used to ensure vertical alignment during tunnel construction. Example: The Romans used a plumb line suspended from a rod placed across the top of each shaft to verify that the tunnels' shafts were vertical and properly aligned.

6. Fucine Lake: A large lake in central Italy that was drained by the Romans through the construction of the 5.6-kilometer-long Claudius tunnel. Example: The Fucine Lake was successfully drained by the Romans using the Claudius tunnel, which involved the excavation of deep shafts and took 11 years to complete.

7. Saldae aqueduct: An aqueduct system in modern-day Algeria that included a tunnel built by the Romans, featuring a lateral link between two corridors to correct an initial construction error. Example: The Saldae aqueduct system included a Roman tunnel that required a lateral link to rectify the missed connection between two teams of builders during construction.

8. Qanat method: A tunnel construction method introduced by the Persians and later adopted by the Romans, involving the digging of vertical shafts at regular intervals to create a tunnel for water supply. Example: The qanat method was utilized by both the Persians and the Romans to construct tunnels that provided reliable water supply to settlements, ensuring water flow from hilltops to canals.

9. Ventilation: The process of providing fresh air circulation within a tunnel to ensure a safe working environment. Example: The shafts used in the qanat method not only served as a means to remove excavated soil but also provided ventilation for workers during tunnel construction.

10. Claudius tunnel: A 5.6-kilometer-long tunnel constructed by the Romans in 41 CE to drain the Fucine Lake in central Italy. Example: The Claudius tunnel was a significant engineering feat by the Romans, involving the excavation of deep shafts and employing thousands of workers over an extended period.

11. Shafts: Vertical passages or openings dug at intervals in the tunnel construction process, serving as access points, ventilation conduits, and means to remove excavated materials. Example: The Roman qanat and counter-excavation methods involved the creation of shafts to facilitate construction and provide necessary functions such as access and ventilation.

1. Qanat: An underground water channel or tunnel constructed using the qanat method, designed to provide a reliable water supply to arid regions. Example: The Persians and Romans utilized qanats to create underground water channels that allowed for the distribution of water to settlements in dry areas.

2. Mining tunnels: Tunnels excavated by the Romans for the purpose of mineral extraction, such as gold, silver, and other valuable resources. Example: Roman mining tunnels at sites like Dolaucothi in Wales were crucial for accessing mineral veins and extracting precious metals.

3. Surveying: The process of measuring and mapping the land to determine the optimal route and alignment for tunnel construction. Example: Romans employed advanced techniques of surveying to ensure the accurate alignment of tunnels, especially when using the counter-excavation method.

4. Excavation rate: The speed at which the tunnel is excavated, measured in terms of the distance covered per unit of time. Example: The excavation rate of Roman tunnels varied depending on factors such as rock hardness, construction method, and the availability of resources.

5. Inscriptions: Writings or carvings found on tunnel walls, often indicating the names of patrons, architects, construction dates, or historical events. Example: Many Roman tunnels feature inscriptions that provide valuable information about their construction, including the names of those involved and the timeline of the project.

6. Geological challenges: Obstacles encountered during tunnel construction due to the nature of the rock formations, such as faults, hard rock, or unstable strata. Example: Roman tunnel builders had to overcome various geological challenges, such as unpredictable fault lines or exceptionally hard rock, to successfully complete their projects.

7. Tunnel deviation: A divergence from the planned tunnel path, requiring adjustments to ensure that both ends of the tunnel meet accurately. Example: If builders encountered unexpected geological conditions, it could lead to tunnel deviation, necessitating corrective measures to realign the tunnel and ensure its functionality.

8. Construction planning: The process of organizing and scheduling the various tasks, resources, and techniques required for successful tunnel construction. Example: Roman tunnel projects involved meticulous construction planning to account for factors such as excavation methods, resources, workforce, and geological challenges.

9. Tunnel durability: The ability of a tunnel to withstand the test of time, considering factors like structural integrity, materials used, and ongoing maintenance. Example: The longevity of some Roman tunnels is a testament to their tunnel durability, as they remain in use or are still accessible after centuries of existence.

10. Architectural innovation: The introduction of new ideas, techniques, or materials in tunnel construction that improve efficiency, durability, or functionality. Example: Roman tunnel construction displayed remarkable architectural innovation through techniques like fire quenching, plumb lines, and counter-excavation methods.

11. Tunnel maintenance: Regular upkeep and repair activities performed on tunnels to ensure their functionality and safety. Example: Proper tunnel maintenance is crucial for preserving Roman tunnels, including measures like structural reinforcement, drainage management, and periodic inspections.

12. Water diversion: The redirection of water through tunnels or channels to prevent flooding, drain water bodies, or supply water to specific areas. Example: The Romans constructed tunnels like the Claudius tunnel for the purpose of water diversion, effectively draining the Fucine Lake and controlling water levels.

13. Ancient engineering: The application of scientific and technical knowledge in designing and constructing structures, systems, and infrastructure in ancient civilizations. Example: Roman tunnel construction exemplifies the

Test -4 Passge-2

Changes in reading habits

1.       Pacifier: An object used to calm or soothe babies and toddlers. Example: The iPad has become the new pacifier for babies and toddlers.

2.       Toddlers: Young children who are just beginning to walk and explore. Example: Many toddlers are now engaged with digital devices at a very young age.

3.       Skim: To quickly read or glance through something. Example: Readers now often skim through digital texts instead of reading them deeply.

4.       Flotilla: A group or fleet of boats or ships. Example: Passengers on the plane were either reading on tablets or scrolling through a flotilla of emails and news feeds.

5.       Neuronal: Relating to or involving neurons, which are the cells in the nervous system. Example: The neuronal circuit responsible for reading is undergoing rapid changes.

6.       Circuit: A path or route along which electrical signals or information flows. Example: The brain's reading ability is governed by a complex circuit that has evolved over time.

7.       Elaborated: Developed or expanded in detail. Example: The present reading brain is highly elaborated compared to its simpler origins.

8.       Affective: Relating to emotions or feelings. Example: The reading brain plays a role in the development of important affective processes, such as empathy.

9.       Inference: The act of drawing conclusions based on evidence or reasoning. Example: The reading brain enables the generation of inference and critical analysis.

10.   Perspective-taking: The ability to understand and consider different points of view. Example: The reading brain contributes to the development of perspective-taking skills.

11.   Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings of others. Example: Deep reading processes are associated with the development of empathy.

12.   Critical analysis: The careful examination and evaluation of something. Example: The reading brain is essential for engaging in critical analysis of complex texts.

13.   Generation: The process of creating or producing something. Example: The reading brain contributes to the generation of new ideas and insights.

14.   Digital-based: Relating to or based on digital technology. Example: The shift to digital-based modes of reading has implications for deep reading processes.

15.   Binary: Involving two options or choices. Example: The issue of print versus digital reading is not a simple binary choice.

16.   Diminish: To make or become less or smaller. Example: We must be aware of what may be diminished in the transition to digital reading.

17.   Innovating: Introducing new methods or ideas. Example: Society must consider the potential consequences of innovating without acknowledging the impact on reading.

18.   Blueprint: A detailed plan or design. Example: The reading circuit is not determined by a genetic blueprint but develops in response to the environment.

19.   Advantages: Provides an advantage or benefit. Example: If the dominant medium is fast-paced and information-heavy, the reading circuit will adapt and be advantaged in those processes.

20.   Multi-task oriented: Focused on performing multiple tasks simultaneously. Example: The digital medium favors multi-task oriented processes over deep reading.

21.   Allocated: Set aside or assigned for a particular purpose. Example: When reading digitally, less time is allocated

22.   Downstream effects: The subsequent or indirect consequences of something. Example: Digital screen use may have downstream effects on reading comprehension.

23.   Comprehension: The ability to understand or grasp the meaning of something. Example: Students who read in print showed superior comprehension compared to those reading on screens.

24.   Universal: Applicable or common to all. Example: The short story used in the study had universal appeal among high school students.

25.   Sequential: In a particular order or sequence. Example: Print readers demonstrated better ability to sequence details and reconstruct the plot.

26.   Ziming: The name of a researcher mentioned in the passage. Example: Ziming Liu conducted studies on the changing nature of reading habits.

27.   Norm: A standard or typical pattern of behavior. Example: Skimming has become the new norm in reading, replacing deep reading.

28.   Spot: To quickly identify or locate something. Example: Many readers now spot words as they skim through digital texts.

29.   Atrophy: The wasting away or gradual decline of something. Example: The shift to digital reading may lead to the atrophy of critical analysis skills.

30.   Retreat: To withdraw or move away from something. Example: The decline in critical analysis skills may incentivize a retreat to unchecked sources of information.

31.   Susceptible: Vulnerable or easily influenced by something. Example: Without critical analysis skills, we become susceptible to false information and irrational ideas.

32.   Neuroscience: The scientific study of the nervous system and the brain. Example: The principle of "use it or lose it" is a well-known concept in neuroscience.

33.   Encompass: To include or contain within something. Example: Our understanding of the changing reading brain should encompass both the science and technology available.

34.   Redress: To remedy or correct a problem or situation. Example: We have the ability to identify and redress the changes in reading habits.

35.   Entrenched: Firmly established and difficult to change. Example: We should address the changes in reading before they become entrenched.

36.   Excitement: A feeling of enthusiasm or eagerness. Example: There is as much reason for excitement as caution regarding the changing reading brain.

37.   Neuronal: Relating to or involving neurons, which are the cells in the nervous system. Example: The neuronal circuit responsible for reading is undergoing rapid changes.

38.   Circuit: A path or route along which electrical signals or information flows. Example: The brain's reading ability is governed by a complex circuit that has evolved over time.

39.   Elaborated: Developed or expanded in detail. Example: The present reading brain is highly elaborated compared to its simpler origins.

40.   Affective: Relating to emotions or feelings. Example: The reading brain plays a role in the development of important affective processes, such as empathy.

41.   Inference: The act of drawing conclusions based on evidence or reasoning. Example: The reading brain enables the generation of inference and critical analysis.

42.   Perspective-taking: The ability to understand and consider different points of view. Example: The reading brain contributes to the development of perspective-taking skills.

43.   Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings of others

44.   Critical analysis: The careful examination and evaluation of something. Example: The reading brain is essential for engaging in critical analysis of complex texts.

45.   Generation: The process of creating or producing something. Example: The reading brain contributes to the generation of new ideas and insights.

46.   Digital-based: Relating to or based on digital technology. Example: The shift to digital-based modes of reading has implications for deep reading processes.

47.   Binary: Involving two options or choices. Example: The issue of print versus digital reading is not a simple binary choice.

48.   Diminish: To make or become less or smaller. Example: We must be aware of what may be diminished in the transition to digital reading.

49.   Innovating: Introducing new methods or ideas. Example: Society must consider the potential consequences of innovating without acknowledging the impact on reading.

50.   Blueprint: A detailed plan or design. Example: The reading circuit is not determined by a genetic blueprint but develops in response to the environment.

Test -4 Passage -3

Attitudes towards Artificial Intelligence

1.       Artificial intelligence (AI): The simulation of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think and learn. Example: Police forces are using artificial intelligence (AI) to predict when and where crimes are likely to occur.

2.       Forecasting: Making predictions or estimates about future events or outcomes. Example: Many decisions in our lives require a good forecasting, and AI is almost always better at it than we are.

3.       Reluctant: Unwilling or hesitant to do something. Example: People are often reluctant to trust AI predictions, preferring to trust human experts.

4.       Trust: Belief in the reliability, truth, or ability of someone or something. Example: To benefit from AI, we need to find a way to get people to trust it.

5.       Promote: To support or advertise the use or adoption of something. Example: IBM attempted to promote Watson for Oncology to cancer doctors.

6.       Supercomputer: An extremely powerful computer with high processing capabilities. Example: Watson for Oncology is one of IBM's supercomputer programs.

7.       PR disaster: A situation in which public relations efforts go wrong and cause negative consequences. Example: The promotion of Watson for Oncology turned out to be a PR disaster for IBM.

8.       Recommendations: Suggestions or advice given based on knowledge or expertise. Example: Watson promised to provide top-quality recommendations on cancer treatment.

9.       Coincided: Occurred at the same time or in the same way. Example: If Watson's guidance coincided with the doctors' opinions, they saw no point in its recommendations.

10.   Competent: Capable or skilled in a particular area. Example: If Watson generated a recommendation contradicting the experts' opinion, doctors concluded that it wasn't competent.

11.   Machine-learning: The ability of a computer system to improve its performance by analyzing data and learning from it. Example: Watson's machine-learning algorithms were too complex for humans to fully understand.

12.   Suspicion: A feeling of doubt, mistrust, or uncertainty. Example: The lack of explanation from the machine raised more suspicion and disbelief among doctors.

13.   Disbelief: Refusal or inability to believe something. Example: The seemingly outlandish AI recommendations led to disbelief among many doctors.

14.   Reliability: The quality of being trustworthy or dependable. Example: Trust in other people often stems from experience and a sense of their reliability.

15.   Psychological: Related to the mind, mental processes, and behavior. Example: Trust in others creates a psychological feeling of safety.

16.   Anxiety: A feeling of unease or worry, often accompanied by nervousness or fear. Example: Interacting with something we don't understand can cause anxiety.

17.   Familiar: Well-known, recognized, or acquainted with something. Example: AI is still fairly new and unfamiliar to most people.

18.   Background: Happening or operating behind the scenes, not easily noticeable. Example: AI often works in the background without people realizing it.

19.   Failures: Instances where something does not work as intended or expected. Example: Embarrassing AI failures receive significant media attention.

20.   Disproportionate: Out of proportion or not balanced. Example: AI failures receive

21.   Confirmation bias: The tendency to interpret or favor information that confirms one's existing beliefs or hypotheses. Example: People may use relevant evidence about AI to support their existing attitudes, displaying confirmation bias.

22.   Split: Divided or separated into different groups or factions. Example: Society could be split between those who benefit from AI and those who reject it.

23.   Advantages: Benefits or favorable factors. Example: Refusing to accept the advantages offered by AI could place people at a serious disadvantage.

24.   Experience: Knowledge or skill acquired through involvement in or exposure to something. Example: Having previous experience with AI can significantly improve people's opinions about the technology.

25.   Internet: The global network of interconnected computers and information-sharing platforms. Example: Evidence suggests that using other technologies such as the internet can increase trust in them.

26.   Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures or calculations performed by a computer to solve problems or accomplish tasks. Example: Revealing more about the algorithms used by AI could improve understanding of its decision-making process.

27.   Transparency: The state of being open, observable, or easily understood. Example: Releasing transparency reports about AI could help people gain a better understanding of algorithmic decisions.

28.   Social media: Online platforms and websites that allow users to share content and interact with others. Example: High-profile social media companies already release transparency reports about government requests.

29.   Marketplaces: Online platforms or physical locations where goods or services are bought and sold. Example: Online marketplaces can also release transparency reports about AI to improve understanding.

30.   Responsibility: Being accountable or in charge of something. Example: Giving people a degree of responsibility for implementing AI could increase their willingness to accept it.

31.   Enthusiasm: Intense excitement or eagerness. Example: Optimists became more extreme in their enthusiasm for AI after watching sci-fi films.

32.   Sceptics: People who doubt or question the validity or effectiveness of something. Example: Sceptics became even more guarded in their attitudes toward AI after watching sci-fi films.

33.   Attitudes: Beliefs, opinions, or dispositions toward something. Example: Cinematic visions of AI can polarize people's attitudes toward automation.

34.   Biased: Inclined or prejudiced toward a particular opinion or perspective. Example: People may use relevant evidence about AI in a biased manner to support their existing attitudes.

35.   Implementation: The process of putting a plan, decision, or system into effect. Example: Allowing people a degree of responsibility for AI implementation may increase trust in the technology.

36.   Intricate: Complex, detailed, or elaborate. Example: Understanding the intricate inner workings of AI systems is not necessary for acceptance.

37.   Polarised: Divided into two contrasting or opposing groups. Example: Cinematic visions of AI can lead to a society polarised between AI beneficiaries and rejecters.

38.   Guarded: Cautious, reserved, or hesitant. Example: Sceptics became even more guarded in their attitudes toward AI after watching the films.

39.   Biased: Inclined or prejudiced toward a particular opinion or perspective. Example: People may use relevant evidence about AI in a biased manner to support their existing attitudes.

40.   Degrees of freedom: The amount of flexibility or control given to someone. Example: Allowing people degrees of freedom to

41.   Satisfied: Content or pleased with something. Example: Allowing people to modify an algorithm slightly made them feel more satisfied with its decisions.

42.   Superior: Higher in quality, skill, or performance. Example: People who were allowed to modify an algorithm felt more likely to believe it was superior.

43.   Implementation: The process of putting a plan, decision, or system into effect. Example: Giving people a degree of responsibility for AI implementation can increase their trust in it.

44.   Intricate: Complex, detailed, or elaborate. Example: Understanding the intricate inner workings of AI systems is not necessary for acceptance.

45.   Accept: To believe, receive, or take something willingly. Example: If people are given a degree of responsibility, they will be more willing to accept AI.

46.   Technology: Tools, machines, or processes used to solve problems or achieve goals. Example: Trust in AI can be improved by gaining more experience with the technology.

47.   Reliable: Dependable, trustworthy, or consistent. Example: Trust in other people is often based on their reliability and past experiences with them.

48.   Bias: Prejudice or favoritism toward a particular group or perspective. Example: People may display confirmation bias when evaluating evidence about AI.

49.   Disadvantage: An unfavorable or detrimental circumstance or condition. Example: Rejecting the advantages of AI could place people at a disadvantage.

50.   Enthusiasm: Intense excitement or passion. Example: Optimists showed increased enthusiasm for AI after watching sci-fi films.

51.   Reliance: Dependence on or trust in someone or something. Example: People tend to have a greater reliance on human experts than on AI predictions.

52.   Perception: The way in which something is interpreted or understood. Example: Media coverage of AI failures has influenced the public's perception of its reliability.

53.   Forecast: A prediction or estimate of future events or outcomes. Example: AI is often better at forecasting than humans when it comes to predicting certain events.

54.   Psychological: Relating to the mind, mental processes, or behavior. Example: Interacting with something unfamiliar like AI can cause psychological anxiety.

55.   Anxiety: A feeling of unease, nervousness, or worry. Example: Many people experience anxiety when dealing with technologies they don't fully understand.

56.   Background: Events or circumstances that have happened in the past. Example: AI often operates in the background, making it less visible to people.

57.   Intrusion: The act of imposing oneself or something unwanted on others. Example: Some people perceive AI as an intrusion into their lives and decision-making processes.

58.   Misconception: A mistaken belief or idea. Example: Many people have misconceptions about AI due to media portrayals of its capabilities.

59.   Reliability: The quality of being trustworthy or consistent. Example: Trust in AI is influenced by perceptions of its reliability and track record.

60.   Artificial: Made or produced by human beings rather than occurring naturally. Example: AI refers to artificial intelligence created and developed by humans.