Cambridge IELTS 3 Reading Vocabulary

ACADEMIC READING TEST-1

PASSAGE-1

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-14, which are based on the following reading passage:

THE ROCKET - FROM EAST TO WEST

1. concept: (noun) an abstract or general idea. Example: "Understanding the concept of gravity is fundamental to studying physics."

2. propelling: (verb) driving or pushing something forward. Example: "The engine is responsible for propelling the car at high speeds."

3. mechanism: (noun) a system or process that works in a particular way. Example: "The alarm clock's mechanism triggers the ringing sound at the set time."

4. milestones: (noun) significant events or stages in the progress or development of something. Example: "Graduating from university is a major milestone in one's academic journey."

5. intrigued: (adjective) interested or curious about something. Example: "The detective was intrigued by the mysterious clues found at the crime scene."

6. sophisticated: (adjective) complex, advanced, or refined in terms of technology or design. Example: "The new smartphone features a sophisticated facial recognition system."

7. fiction: (noun) literature or storytelling that is not based on real events or people. Example: "I enjoy reading fiction novels to escape into imaginary worlds."

8. analogy: (noun) a comparison between two things to highlight similarities. Example: "The professor used an analogy of a car engine to explain how the human heart works."

9. particles: (noun) tiny, separate pieces or units of matter. Example: "When you crush a rock, it breaks into smaller particles."

10. invention: (noun) a new device, process, or method created through human creativity and ingenuity. Example: "The telephone is considered a groundbreaking invention by Alexander Graham Bell."

11. compounded: (verb) mixed or combined elements to create a whole. Example: "The chemist compounded various substances to form a new compound."

12. incendiary: (adjective) capable of causing fire or combustion. Example: "The terrorist attack involved an incendiary device that caused a massive explosion."

13. repel: (verb) drive back or keep away; resist the force or effect of something. Example: "The insect repellent helps repel mosquitoes and other bugs."

14. technology: (noun) the application of scientific knowledge to practical purposes, especially in industry and engineering. Example: "Advancements in technology have revolutionized the way we communicate."

15. stability: (noun) the state of being firmly fixed, balanced, or secure. Example: "The architect ensured the building's stability by using strong foundations."

16. aggressive: (adjective) characterized by assertiveness, forcefulness, or readiness to attack. Example: "The dog displayed aggressive behavior towards strangers."

17. barrage: (noun) a concentrated outpouring or overwhelming quantity of something. Example: "The team faced a barrage of criticism after their defeat in the championship."

18. predictable: (adjective) able to be foreseen or anticipated. Example: "The weather forecast predicted a predictable increase in temperatures for the weekend."

19. devastating: (adjective) causing severe damage or destruction. Example: "The hurricane had a devastating impact

1. foundations: (noun) the basis or groundwork on which something is built or developed. Example: "Education provides the foundations for a successful career."

2. reality: (noun) the state of things as they actually exist. Example: "It's important to face reality and deal with problems as they arise."

3. incentive: (noun) something that motivates or encourages action. Example: "A bonus at work can provide an incentive for employees to work harder."

4. encased: (adjective) enclosed or covered in a protective or enclosing case. Example: "The fragile item was encased in bubble wrap to prevent damage during shipping."

5. encounter: (verb) to come across or meet someone or something unexpectedly. Example: "I encountered an old friend at the grocery store yesterday."

6. fortuitous: (adjective) happening by chance or luck. Example: "Winning the lottery was a fortuitous event that changed his life."

7. ingenious: (adjective) clever, inventive, or resourceful. Example: "The engineer came up with an ingenious solution to the complex problem."

8. phenomenon: (noun) a remarkable or exceptional occurrence or event. Example: "The Northern Lights are a natural phenomenon that amazes spectators."

9. revolutionized: (verb) radically changed or transformed something. Example: "The invention of the internet revolutionized the way we access information."

10. simultaneously: (adverb) at the same time or concurrently. Example: "She was listening to music and studying simultaneously."

11. conceptualize: (verb) to form a concept or mental representation of something. Example: "It took me some time to conceptualize the abstract ideas in the book."

12. innovative: (adjective) introducing new ideas, methods, or techniques. Example: "The company is known for its innovative approach to product design."

13. adaptation: (noun) the act of adjusting or modifying something to suit a new purpose or environment. Example: "Animals undergo adaptation to survive in their natural habitats."

14. comparable: (adjective) able to be likened or similar in nature or quality. Example: "The two novels have comparable themes and writing styles."

15. preceding: (adjective) coming before in time or order. Example: "The preceding chapter provided the necessary background information."

16. significant: (adjective) important, notable, or meaningful. Example: "The discovery of a new species is a significant scientific achievement."

17. contemporary: (adjective) belonging to the present time; modern or current. Example: "The artist's work reflects contemporary social issues."

18. foresee: (verb) to predict or anticipate something before it happens. Example: "The economist can foresee potential economic trends based on market analysis."

19. dimension: (noun) a particular aspect or feature of a situation or problem. Example: "The issue has many dimensions that need to be considered."

20. comprise: (verb) to consist of; to be made up of. Example: "The committee is comprised of experts from various fields."

1. maneuver: (noun) a planned movement or series of moves, especially in a military context. Example: "The soldiers executed a tactical maneuver to outflank the enemy."

2. implement: (verb) to put into effect or action; to carry out. Example: "The government plans to implement new policies to improve healthcare."

3. feasible: (adjective) possible to do or achieve; practical. Example: "The proposed project is not financially feasible at the moment."

4. prototype: (noun) an early model or version of a product used for testing or development. Example: "The engineers built a functional prototype of the new car design."

5. sophistication: (noun) refinement, complexity, or advanced level of development. Example: "The restaurant is known for the sophistication of its cuisine."

6. trajectory: (noun) the path followed by an object moving through space or air. Example: "The rocket's trajectory was carefully calculated to reach its intended destination."

7. unveil: (verb) to reveal or make known for the first time. Example: "The company plans to unveil its latest product at the upcoming conference."

8. groundbreaking: (adjective) innovative or pioneering; introducing new ideas or methods. Example: "The scientist made a groundbreaking discovery in the field of genetics."

9. comprehensive: (adjective) complete, including all important aspects or details. Example: "The report provides a comprehensive analysis of the current market trends."

10. strive: (verb) to make great efforts or struggle to achieve something. Example: "The athletes strive for excellence and push their limits in training."

11. endeavor: (noun) a sincere and determined effort to achieve a goal. Example: "Starting her own business was a challenging endeavor, but she succeeded."

READING PASSAGE 2                             

The Risks of Cigarette Smoke

1. nicotianine: (noun) the early name for nicotine, an oily essence found in tobacco. Example: "Nicotianine, later known as nicotine, was discovered in the early 1800s."

2. active ingredient: (noun phrase) the component of a substance responsible for its primary effects. Example: "Nicotine is the main active ingredient in tobacco."

3. cancer-causing: (adjective) having the potential to cause cancer. Example: "Cigarette smoke contains cancer-causing substances."

4. vastly: (adverb) to a very great extent; greatly. Example: "Years of cigarette smoking vastly increase the risk of developing fatal medical conditions."

5. leukemia: (noun) a type of cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow. Example: "Smoking is thought to cause about 14% of leukemia cases."

6. preventable: (adjective) able to be avoided or prevented. Example: "Smoking represents the most important preventable cause of cancer."

7. passive smoking: (noun phrase) the inhalation of smoke from another person's tobacco. Example: "Exposure to passive smoking poses a serious health risk."

8. emphasized: (verb) gave special importance or prominence to something. Example: "The report emphasized the health dangers of second-hand smoke."

9. deposited: (verb) laid down or settled. Example: "Side-stream smoke is more likely to be deposited deep in the lungs."

10. illustration: (noun) a specific example or instance used to clarify or explain something. Example: "As an illustration of the health risks, a non-smoking spouse has a higher risk of heart disease due to passive smoking."

11. philosophical: (adjective) relating to the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, and more. Example: "Leaving aside the philosophical question, the report focuses on the health effects of second-hand smoke."

12. adverse: (adjective) harmful or unfavorable; having a negative effect. Example: "Second-hand smoke can have adverse effects on a person's heart and lungs."

13. review: (noun) a critical evaluation or assessment of something, typically involving examination or analysis. Example: "The report includes a review of studies conducted over the past few years."

14. opponent: (noun) a person who actively disagrees with or resists something. Example: "The American Medical Association is a strong opponent of smoking."

15. compensate: (verb) to make up for something; to offset or counterbalance. Example: "The cardiovascular system compensates for the effects of smoking."

16. inhalation: (noun) the action or process of breathing in. Example: "Non-smokers do not have the benefit of their system adapting to smoke inhalation."

17. component: (noun) a part or element of a larger whole. Example: "Cigarette smoke contains many harmful components."

18. interferes: (verb) interrupts, disrupts, or hinders the normal functioning of something. Example: "Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke interferes with the blood

1. platelets: (noun) small blood cells involved in clotting and blood coagulation. Example: "Nicotine and other toxins in cigarette smoke activate platelets, increasing the likelihood of blood clots."

2. likelihood: (noun) the probability or chance of something happening. Example: "The activation of platelets in cigarette smoke increases the likelihood of blood clots."

3. underestimating: (verb) to underestimate or undervalue something; to judge as less important or significant than it actually is. Example: "Scientists working with the tobacco industry are underestimating the damage caused by passive smoking."

4. previous: (adjective) existing or occurring before in time or order. Example: "The researchers cite some previous research that points to passive smoking as a cause of heart attacks."

5. attributed: (verb) regarded as being caused by or resulting from something. Example: "A percentage of lung cancer cases can be attributed to high levels of exposure to second-hand smoke."

6. adverse effects: (noun phrase) negative or harmful consequences or outcomes. Example: "The report highlights the adverse effects of second-hand smoke on a person's heart and lungs."

7. circulation: (noun) the movement of blood through the body's blood vessels. Example: "Cigarette smoke affects blood circulation throughout the body."

8. consultants: (noun) professionals who provide expert advice or services in a specific field. Example: "Some scientific consultants working with the tobacco industry downplay the effects of cigarette smoke."

9. damage done: (noun phrase) the harm or injury caused. Example: "Those scientists are underestimating the damage done by passive smoking."

10. support: (verb) to provide evidence or reasons in favor of something. Example: "The researchers cite previous research to support their findings."

11. establish: (verb) to set up or create something. Example: "The simplest and most cost-effective action is to establish smoke-free environments."

12. workplaces: (noun) locations where people work or carry out their job responsibilities. Example: "Smoke-free workplaces help protect non-smokers from second-hand smoke."

13. substantial: (adjective) considerable in amount, size, or importance. Example: "Second-hand smoke can have substantial adverse effects on a person's health."

14. adapting: (verb) adjusting or changing in response to new circumstances or conditions. Example: "The cardiovascular system adapts to the effects of smoking."

15. particles: (noun) small pieces or fragments of something. Example: "Side-stream smoke contains more particles that can be deposited in the lungs."

16. emphasizes: (verb) gives special importance or prominence to something. Example: "The report emphasizes the need for smoke-free public places."

17. dangers: (noun) risks or hazards that can cause harm or injury. Example: "The report highlights the health dangers of second-hand smoke."

18. medical conditions: (noun phrase) illnesses or diseases that affect a person's health. Example: "Years of cigarette smoking increase the risk of developing fatal medical conditions."

19. toxins: (noun) poisonous substances produced by living organisms. Example: "Cigarette smoke contains toxins that can harm the body."

1. influenza: (noun) a contagious viral infection that primarily affects the respiratory system; commonly known as the flu. Example: "Smoking can contribute to problems such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and influenza."

2. review: (verb) to examine, assess, or evaluate something in a detailed and critical manner. Example: "The researchers reviewed studies conducted over the past few years."

3. researchers: (noun) individuals who conduct systematic investigation and study to discover new knowledge or understand phenomena. Example: "The researchers at the University of California conducted a study on second-hand smoke."

4. benefit: (noun) an advantage, improvement, or positive outcome. Example: "Non-smokers do not have the benefit of their cardiovascular system adapting to smoke inhalation."

5. cardiovascular: (adjective) relating to the heart and blood vessels. Example: "Smoking damages the cardiovascular system."

6. exposure: (noun) the state of being exposed to or in contact with something. Example: "High levels of exposure to second-hand smoke can contribute to lung cancer."

7. consequently: (adverb) as a result or effect of something. Example: "The effects of passive smoking are far greater on non-smokers, consequently, than on smokers."

8. compounds: (noun) substances formed by the combination of two or more elements. Example: "Cigarette smoke contains over 4,700 chemical compounds."

9. damage: (verb) to cause harm, injury, or destruction. Example: "Passive smoking can damage a person's cardiovascular system."

10. evaluate: (verb) to assess, analyze, or judge the value or quality of something. Example: "The researchers evaluated the impact of second-hand smoke on non-smokers."

11. harmful: (adjective) causing or likely to cause harm or damage. Example: "Second-hand smoke has harmful effects on a person's heart and lungs."

12. substance: (noun) a particular kind of matter with consistent properties. Example: "Nicotine is an oily substance found in tobacco."

13. alcohol-related: (adjective) associated with or influenced by the consumption of alcohol. Example: "Passive smoking is the third most preventable cause of death after active smoking and alcohol-related diseases."

READING PASSAGE 3

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1.       Hypotheses: (noun) plural form of hypothesis; proposed explanations or ideas that are yet to be tested. Example: "Scientists formulate hypotheses to guide their research and investigations."

2.       Imaginative: (adjective) creative, characterized by the ability to generate new and original ideas. Example: "The field of art is known for its imaginative expressions and innovative techniques."

3.       Inspirational: (adjective) providing inspiration or motivation; encouraging creative or imaginative thinking. Example: "The speaker delivered an inspirational speech that motivated the audience to pursue their dreams."

4.       Adventures: (noun) exciting and daring experiences or undertakings. Example: "Exploring unknown territories can be thrilling and filled with unexpected adventures."

5.       Arguing: (verb) presenting reasons or evidence to support a particular point of view. Example: "The debaters were arguing their cases passionately, each defending their perspective."

6.       Position: (noun) a particular stance or viewpoint on a subject or issue. Example: "The author's position on climate change was clearly stated in the introduction."

7.       Interpretations: (noun) explanations or understandings of something, often based on personal perspectives or viewpoints. Example: "Different scholars provided diverse interpretations of the ancient text."

8.       Researcher: (noun) a person engaged in systematic investigation or study to discover new knowledge or reach conclusions. Example: "The researcher spent years collecting and analyzing data for their groundbreaking study."

9.       Discouraged: (adjective) feeling demotivated, disheartened, or lacking enthusiasm. Example: "The initial setbacks in the project made the team members feel discouraged."

10.   Cheating: (noun) acting dishonestly or unfairly, typically to gain an advantage. Example: "Plagiarism is considered a form of academic cheating and can result in severe consequences."

11.   Essential: (adjective) absolutely necessary; of utmost importance. Example: "Proper nutrition is essential for maintaining good health."

12.   Raw: (adjective) unprocessed, in its natural or original state. Example: "The raw data needed to be analyzed and organized before drawing conclusions."

13.   Evidence: (noun) facts, information, or proof that supports or disproves a claim or hypothesis. Example: "The detective gathered evidence to solve the crime and identify the culprit."

14.   Senses: (noun) the faculties by which the body perceives and responds to stimuli, such as sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Example: "The artist used vibrant colors to appeal to the viewer's senses and evoke emotions."

15.   Generalizations: (noun) broad statements or conclusions drawn from specific observations or facts. Example: "Stereotypes are often based on generalizations that oversimplify and categorize people."

16.   Array: (noun) an ordered arrangement or display of things. Example: "The store had an impressive array of products on its shelves."

17.   Factual: (adjective) based on facts or reality; true and accurate. Example: "The journalist was praised for presenting factual information in their investigative report."

18.   Observation: (noun) the act or process of closely watching or examining something. Example

18.   Observation: (noun) the act or process of closely watching or examining something. Example: "The scientist made careful observations to gather data for their study."

19.   Function: (verb) to work or operate in a particular way or fulfill a specific role. Example: "The heart functions as a pump, circulating blood throughout the body."

20.   Experimental: (adjective) relating to or based on experiments or testing. Example: "The laboratory conducted experimental studies to investigate the effects of the new drug."

21.   Exploratory: (adjective) done or undertaken to gain knowledge or understanding. Example: "The researcher conducted an exploratory study to explore the potential causes of the phenomenon."

22.   Expectation: (noun) a strong belief or anticipation about the outcome of a situation. Example: "The team had high expectations for their performance in the upcoming tournament."

23.   Influence: (verb) to have an effect on the thoughts, actions, or behavior of someone or something. Example: "Parents can have a significant influence on their children's values and beliefs."

24.   Relevant: (adjective) closely connected or applicable to the matter at hand; important and significant. Example: "The lawyer presented relevant evidence to support their client's case."

25.   Discarded: (verb) thrown away or rejected as no longer useful or valuable. Example: "The old, broken appliances were discarded and replaced with new ones."

26.   Rigorous: (adjective) strict, precise, or demanding in terms of quality, accuracy, or standards. Example: "The professor set rigorous criteria for grading the research papers."

27.   Deducing: (verb) to arrive at a conclusion or inference by reasoning or logical thinking. Example: "Based on the available evidence, the detective began deducing the identity of the suspect."

28.   Retained: (verb) kept or continued to be held or used; not discarded or replaced. Example: "She retained her position as team captain for another season."

29.   Accident: (noun) an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance. Example: "The car crash was a tragic accident that resulted in multiple injuries."

30.   Antidote: (noun) a substance that counteracts or neutralizes the effects of a poison or harmful substance. Example: "The doctor administered the antidote to reverse the toxic effects of the snakebite."

31.   Myth: (noun) a widely held but false belief or idea; a traditional story or legend. Example: "The notion that lightning never strikes the same place twice is a myth."

32.   Serial: (adjective) arranged or presented in a series or sequence. Example: "The TV show released a new serial episode every week."

33.   Logical: (adjective) characterized by clear, sound reasoning and coherence. Example: "The mathematician presented a logical proof to solve the complex equation."

34.   Behavioural: (adjective) related to actions, reactions, or conduct. Example: "The psychologist studied the behavioural patterns of children with attention-deficit disorder."

35.   Worth: (noun) value or importance. Example: "The antique furniture had sentimental worth for the family."

36.   Output: (noun) the result or product of a process or activity

36.   Output: (noun) the result or product of a process or activity. Example: "The company's annual output increased by 20% compared to the previous year."

37.   Evaluated: (verb) assessed or examined to determine value, significance, or quality. Example: "The teacher evaluated the students' essays based on their content and writing skills."

38.   Holistic: (adjective) considering or treating something as a whole, rather than separate parts. Example: "The holistic approach to healthcare focuses on addressing the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of patients."

39.   Reworkings: (noun) revised or modified versions of something, often involving changes or adjustments. Example: "The author made several reworkings of the manuscript before finalizing it for publication."

40.   Corrections: (noun) changes made to rectify errors or mistakes. Example: "The editor provided helpful corrections to improve the clarity and grammar of the document."

41.   Blind alleys: (noun) paths or approaches that lead to no useful or successful outcome. Example: "The researchers encountered several blind alleys in their quest to find a cure for the disease."

42.   Inspiration: (noun) a creative or influential force that stimulates new ideas, thoughts, or actions. Example: "Traveling to different countries often provides inspiration for writers and artists."

43.   Serial: (adjective) appearing or occurring in regular succession, one after another. Example: "The crime novel was published as a serial, with each chapter released weekly in a magazine."

44.   Thesis: (noun) a long essay or dissertation presenting the author's research and findings as part of an academic degree. Example: "She spent months writing her doctoral thesis on the impact of climate change on coastal ecosystems."

45.   Published: (adjective) made available to the public through printed or digital media. Example: "The scientist's groundbreaking research findings were published in a prestigious scientific journal."

46.   Described: (verb) provided an account or explanation in words; conveyed information about something. Example: "The witness described the suspect's appearance to the police."

47.   Writing up: (phrase) the process of documenting or presenting research findings in written form. Example: "After completing the experiments, the scientist began writing up the results for publication."

48.   Carrying out: (phrase) performing or executing a task or activity. Example: "The team was responsible for carrying out the fieldwork and data collection."

49.   Undertaking: (noun) a task, project, or assignment that requires effort or commitment. Example: "Starting a business is a challenging undertaking that involves careful planning and hard work."

50.   Carried it out: (phrase) performed or completed a task or action. Example: "The researchers carried out a series of experiments to test their hypothesis."

ACADEMIC READING TEST-2

PASSAGE-1                    A Remarkable Beetle

1.       remarkable: (adjective) worthy of attention; extraordinary. Example: "Dung beetles have undergone remarkable adaptations to survive in different climates."

2.       adapted: (adjective) adjusted or modified to fit a particular environment or condition. Example: "These dung beetles are adapted to thrive in Australia's diverse climates."

3.       climates: (noun) the prevailing weather conditions in a particular region or area. Example: "Dung beetles have evolved to withstand various climates, from hot and dry to cool and temperate."

4.       dung: (noun) animal feces; excrement. Example: "Dung beetles play a crucial role in processing and decomposing dung."

5.       coarse: (adjective) rough or uneven in texture or structure. Example: "Native dung beetles specialize in processing coarse marsupial droppings."

6.       scrub: (noun) an area covered with low or stunted vegetation. Example: "Australia's native dung beetles are found in scrub and woodland habitats."

7.       woodland: (noun) land covered with trees and shrubs; forested area. Example: "Dung beetles inhabit woodland areas where they can find suitable dung sources."

8.       breed: (verb) produce offspring sexually; reproduce. Example: "Bush flies and buffalo flies breed in soft cattle dung."

9.       premier: (adjective) most important or leading; highest in rank or position. Example: "The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) is Australia's premier research organization."

10.   research: (noun) systematic investigation to discover or establish facts or principles. Example: "George Bornemissza conducted research on dung beetles and their potential impact on controlling flies."

11.   organisation: (noun) a structured group of people with a common purpose; an organized body or institution. Example: "The CSIRO is a renowned scientific organization known for its contributions to various fields."

12.   insects: (noun) small arthropod animals with six legs and typically one or two pairs of wings. Example: "The CSIRO imported insects, including different species of dung beetles, to Australia."

13.   species: (noun) a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Example: "The CSIRO imported dung beetles from around 50 different species."

14.   integrate: (verb) combine or bring together to form a whole; incorporate. Example: "Several dung beetle species have successfully integrated into the local environment."

15.   ecology: (noun) the study of the relationships between organisms and their environment. Example: "Dung beetles play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of the local ecology."

16.   multiply: (verb) increase or cause to increase in number or quantity. Example: "Once established, dung beetles multiply and contribute to the health of the ecosystem."

17.   predators: (noun) animals that hunt, kill, and eat other animals. Example: "Dung beetles working from inside the dung pats are protected from predators."

18.   burrow: (verb) excavate a hole or tunnel for habitation or refuge. Example: "Dung

19.   tunnelling: (noun) the act of digging or creating tunnels. Example: "Dung beetles engage in tunnelling activities to bury dung and create chambers."

20.   hollowed out: (adjective) emptied or excavated from within; made into a hollow shape. Example: "The dung pats are hollowed out by the dung beetles as they burrow beneath them."

21.   excavate: (verb) dig out or make a hole or tunnel by removing material. Example: "Some large dung beetle species from France excavate tunnels deep below the dung pat."

22.   sausage-shaped: (adjective) having a shape resembling that of a sausage; elongated and cylindrical. Example: "The large French dung beetles create sausage-shaped brood chambers along their tunnels."

23.   hang like fruit: (verb phrase) suspend or dangle in a manner resembling fruit. Example: "The small Spanish dung beetle buries dung in chambers that hang like fruit from the branches."

24.   narrow: (adjective) having a small width; not wide. Example: "South African dung beetles dig narrow tunnels below the surface of the dung pat."

25.   surface-dwelling: (adjective) living or existing on the surface or top layer. Example: "Some surface-dwelling dung beetles roll dung into perfectly-shaped balls."

26.   attached: (verb) fastened or joined to something. Example: "The dung beetles attach the rolled dung balls to the bases of plants."

27.   overlapping: (adjective) extending or covering a shared area or period. Example: "Farmers require dung beetle species with overlapping periods of activity for optimal dung burial."

28.   temperate: (adjective) having a mild or moderate climate. Example: "The temperate-climate Spanish dung beetle species is well-suited for cooler environments."

29.   generation: (noun) all the people born and living at about the same time. Example: "Dung beetles can produce multiple generations within a single year."

30.   annually: (adverb) once a year; every year. Example: "The temperate-climate Spanish dung beetles can produce two to five generations annually."

31.   subtropical: (adjective) relating to or characteristic of regions with a climate between tropical and temperate. Example: "The South African ball-rolling dung beetle species prefers subtropical climates."

32.   inhabitat: (verb) live in or occupy (a place or environment). Example: "Different dung beetle species inhabit various climatic zones in Australia."

33.   fertiliser: (noun) a substance added to soil to promote plant growth. Example: "The residue left by dung beetles serves as a natural fertiliser for the soil."

34.   aeration: (noun) the process of providing air or oxygen to something. Example: "Dung beetle tunnels contribute to soil aeration and improved oxygenation."

35.   channels: (noun) passages or routes through which something flows or is conveyed. Example: "The abandoned dung beetle tunnels serve as natural water channels for the soil."

36.   decompose: (verb) break down or decay into simpler substances or components. Example: "Earthworms help decompose the dig

37.   essential: (adjective) absolutely necessary; extremely important. Example: "The decomposed dung in the abandoned burrows provides essential nutrients for the soil."

38.   polluting: (verb) contaminating or making impure. Example: "Without dung beetles, dung and chemical fertilizers could potentially pollute water sources."

39.   courses: (noun) a path or route along which something moves. Example: "Uncontrolled dung and fertilizers could flow into water courses and cause environmental damage."

40.   blooms: (noun) rapid growth or reproduction of organisms, often causing visible changes in the environment. Example: "Unregulated dung and fertilizer runoff can lead to blooms of blue-green algae in water bodies."

41.   dispose of: (verb phrase) get rid of or eliminate. Example: "Dung beetles play a vital role in helping to dispose of cow dung and prevent its accumulation."

42.   litter: (verb) make (a place) untidy with rubbish or a large number of objects scattered about. Example: "Without dung beetles, cow pats would litter pastures and hinder cattle's access to grass."

43.   pastures: (noun) land covered with grass and other low plants suitable for grazing animals. Example: "The accumulation of cow pats would make pastures unsuitable for cattle to graze."

44.   smother: (verb) cover or suffocate (someone or something) entirely. Example: "The sheer amount of cow dung produced would smother vast areas of pasture."

45.   integral: (adjective) necessary to complete a whole; essential. Example: "Dung beetles have become an integral part of dairy farm management in Australia."

46.   management: (noun) the process of dealing with or controlling something effectively. Example: "Dung beetles contribute to the successful management of dairy farms."

47.   private: (adjective) belonging to or for the use of a particular person or group; not public. Example: "Some dung beetle species are available through private breeders."

48.   specialised: (adjective) requiring or involving specific knowledge or training. Example: "Former CSIRO entomologists have opened specialized businesses focused on dung beetles."

49.   knowledge: (noun) information, understanding, or skills acquired through experience, education, or training. Example: "Private breeders possess knowledge about dung beetles and their rearing."

50.   competition: (noun) the activity or condition of striving to gain or win something by defeating or establishing superiority over others. Example: "Private breeders are in competition with the CSIRO in providing dung beetles to farmers."

PASSAGE-2

1.       inescapable: (adjective) unavoidable; unable to be avoided or escaped. Example: "The role of governments in environmental management is difficult but inescapable."

2.       exploitation: (noun) the action of using and benefiting from resources, often in an unfair or harmful manner. Example: "Governments sometimes subsidize the exploitation of natural resources, causing environmental damage."

3.       harmful: (adjective) causing or capable of causing damage or harm. Example: "Governments often engage in activities that are even more harmful to the environment."

4.       subsidize: (verb) provide financial support or assistance to (a person, organization, or activity) with public funds. Example: "Governments may subsidize the consumption of natural resources through various policies."

5.       two-fold: (adjective) having two parts or aspects; dual. Example: "Scrapping harmful policies would provide a two-fold benefit: a cleaner environment and a more efficient economy."

6.       bonus: (noun) an extra benefit or advantage; something additional or unexpected. Example: "Eliminating harmful policies would result in a bonus: a healthier environment and improved economic efficiency."

7.       environmentalism: (noun) the advocacy or work towards protecting the natural environment from harm or exploitation. Example: "The goal of environmentalism is to promote sustainable practices and conserve natural resources."

8.       courage: (noun) the ability to do something difficult or face danger without fear. Example: "Politicians need to have the courage to confront vested interests and promote environmental policies."

9.       confront: (verb) face or address (a problem or difficult situation) directly. Example: "To make progress, politicians must confront the vested interests that hinder environmental protection."

10.   vested interest: (noun phrase) a personal or financial stake or involvement in a particular situation, often creating bias or self-interest. Example: "Politicians must confront the vested interests that benefit from harmful environmental policies."

11.   surface: (noun) the outside layer or topmost part of something. Example: "Farming has a significant impact on the Earth's surface, shaping a third of the planet's land area."

12.   proportion: (noun) a part, share, or amount considered in relation to a whole. Example: "Farming shapes a significant proportion of the Earth's land area."

13.   cultivation: (noun) the process of preparing and using land for growing crops or plants. Example: "Increased food output is a result of advances in cultivation techniques."

14.   plough: (noun) a large farming implement with blades used to turn over soil in preparation for planting. Example: "More land has been brought under the plough to increase food production."

15.   irrigation: (noun) the artificial application of water to land or crops to assist in their growth. Example: "Higher yields in farming have been achieved through improved techniques such as irrigation."

16.   yield: (noun) the amount of agricultural or industrial output produced. Example: "Increases in yield per acre have contributed to higher food production."

17.   pesticides: (noun) substances used to kill or control pests (insects, weeds, etc.) that damage crops or plants. Example: "The use

17.   pesticides: (noun) substances used to kill or control pests (insects, weeds, etc.) that damage crops or plants. Example: "The use of pesticides has increased to protect crops from pests and maximize yields."

18.   chemical fertilisers: (noun phrase) synthetic substances used to provide essential nutrients to plants for their growth. Example: "The increased use of chemical fertilisers has contributed to higher crop yields."

19.   deforestation: (noun) the clearing or destruction of forests, typically for agriculture or logging purposes. Example: "Land clearing for agriculture is a major cause of deforestation worldwide."

20.   contaminate: (verb) make (something) impure, polluted, or harmful by adding something undesirable. Example: "Chemical fertilisers and pesticides can contaminate water supplies if not used properly."

21.   exacerbate: (verb) make (a problem, situation, or negative feeling) worse or more severe. Example: "Intensive farming practices tend to exacerbate soil erosion."

22.   mono-culture: (noun) the cultivation or growth of a single crop species over a large area. Example: "The spread of mono-culture reduces biodiversity and increases vulnerability to pests and diseases."

23.   vanishing: (adjective) disappearing or becoming extinct. Example: "Topsoil in India and China is vanishing at an alarming rate."

24.   compounded: (verb) made worse or more severe by the addition or combination of various elements. Example: "Government policies have compounded the environmental damage caused by farming."

25.   subsidies: (noun) financial assistance or support given by the government to particular industries or activities. Example: "Subsidies for farming can drive up the price of land and distort the market."

26.   output: (noun) the amount of something produced or generated by a person, machine, or industry. Example: "The aim is to increase food output while minimizing environmental impact."

27.   crop: (noun) a cultivated plant that is grown as food, livestock fodder, or for other economic purposes. Example: "Farmers need incentives to grow food crops sustainably."

28.   acre: (noun) a unit of land area equal to 43,560 square feet or about 4,047 square meters. Example: "To increase crop yields per acre, farmers often rely on chemical inputs."

29.   denmark: (noun) a country in Northern Europe known for its agricultural practices. Example: "Fertilizer use doubled in Denmark between 1960 and 1985."

30.   netherlands: (noun) a country in Northwestern Europe known for its agricultural productivity. Example: "The use of fertilizers increased by 150% in The Netherlands."

31.   frequency: (noun) the rate at which something occurs or is repeated over a particular period of time. Example: "The frequency of pesticide application increased in Denmark during the three years from 1981."

32.   dramatic: (adjective) sudden and striking, having a powerful effect. Example: "New Zealand's decision to scrap most farm support had a dramatic impact on fertilizer use."

33.   environmentally: (adverb) in a way that relates to the natural world and its surroundings. Example: "Efforts are being made to encourage farmers to treat their land environmentally friendlier."

34.   friendlier: (adjective) more favorable

34.   friendlier: (adjective) more favorable or conducive to a positive relationship or outcome. Example: "New payments aim to encourage farmers to adopt friendlier practices towards the environment."

35.   ethanol: (noun) a type of alcohol produced from crops, used as a fuel or fuel additive. Example: "Crop residues can be used to produce ethanol, which is a more environmentally friendly fuel."

36.   biomass: (noun) organic matter derived from plants or animals used as a source of renewable energy. Example: "Crop residues can be converted into biomass for fueling power stations."

37.   competitive: (adjective) characterized by rivalry or the ability to compete effectively. Example: "Fuels produced from crop residues are rarely competitive with fossil fuels without subsidies."

38.   aggravate: (verb) make (a problem, situation, or condition) worse or more severe. Example: "Government subsidies for pesticides and fertilizers aggravate their overuse and environmental impact."

39.   waste: (verb) use or expend carelessly, extravagantly, or to no purpose. Example: "Subsidies for pesticides often lead to the waste of these chemicals in farming."

40.   lethal: (adjective) causing or capable of causing death or serious harm. Example: "Farmers resort to using more lethal pesticides as pests become resistant to lower doses."

41.   resistant: (adjective) not affected or harmed by something. Example: "Pests develop resistance to pesticides, requiring farmers to use more resistant varieties or higher doses."

42.   poisoning: (noun) the condition of being affected by or exposed to a harmful or toxic substance. Example: "Pesticide poisoning poses a serious health risk, especially in developing countries."

43.   moderate: (adjective) average in amount, intensity, or degree. Example: "Even moderate pesticide applications can cost farmers more than the benefits they provide."

44.   rotating: (verb) regularly changing the crops grown in a particular field or area. Example: "Overuse of fertilizers may discourage farmers from rotating crops or leaving their land fallow."

45.   habitat: (noun) the natural environment or home of a particular plant, animal, or organism. Example: "The conversion of natural habitat into farmland can have detrimental effects on biodiversity."

46.   intensity: (noun) the degree or extent of strength, force, or severity of something. Example: "The intensity of farming in the rich world is expected to decline with reduced subsidies."

47.   desirable: (adjective) worth having or seeking, pleasing or advantageous. Example: "The reduction in farm subsidies can have many desirable environmental effects."

48.   vulnerability: (noun) the state of being exposed to the possibility of being harmed or attacked. Example: "Mono-culture increases the vulnerability of crops to pests and diseases."

49.   sustainable: (adjective) able to be maintained at a certain rate or level without depleting resources or causing harm. Example: "Farmers in poor countries need incentives to manage their land in sustainable ways."

50.   effectively: (adverb) in a way that produces a desired or intended result. Example: "Farmers need incentives to use their soil and water effectively and efficiently."

PASSAGE-3

THE CONCEPT OF ROLE THEORY

1.       occupies: (verb) takes up or fills a particular space, position, or role. Example: "Any individual in any situation occupies a role in relation to other people."

2.       analysis: (noun) the process of examining something in detail in order to understand it better or draw conclusions. Example: "The analysis of a situation helps in understanding the dynamics of roles and interactions."

3.       focal: (adjective) central or main; pertaining to the main point of interest or focus. Example: "The individual in the center of a group is referred to as the focal person."

4.       interacts: (verb) communicates or acts with others; engages in social or communicative exchanges. Example: "The focal person interacts with members of their role set in various ways."

5.       role set: (noun phrase) a group of people with whom an individual interacts and has a relationship in a particular situation. Example: "In the family situation, an individual's role set includes immediate family members."

6.       trivial: (adjective) of little importance or significance; unimportant. Example: "The role set should include individuals with whom the focal person has meaningful interactions, not just trivial ones."

7.       combination: (noun) the act or process of combining two or more things to form something new or different. Example: "The role definition of an individual is a combination of the expectations held by the role set members."

8.       occupationally: (adverb) related to or concerning a particular occupation or profession. Example: "Role expectations can be occupationally defined, particularly for professions like lawyers and doctors."

9.       legally: (adverb) in accordance with the law; related to legal requirements or regulations. Example: "Certain roles, such as lawyers and doctors, have legally defined responsibilities and expectations."

10.   constrained: (adjective) restricted or limited by external factors or circumstances. Example: "The required role behavior for certain professions can be so constrained that it becomes ingrained in one's personality."

11.   likely: (adjective) probable; expected to happen or be true. Example: "There is a likelihood that individuals in the same role will exhibit similar traits or behaviors."

12.   alike: (adjective) similar; having resemblance or similarities. Example: "The expectations of a particular role can shape individuals to become alike in their behaviors or characteristics."

13.   emphasis: (noun) special importance, significance, or attention given to something. Example: "There has been a decline in the emphasis placed on traditional marriage rituals in recent times."

14.   indication: (noun) a sign, signal, or piece of information that indicates or suggests something. Example: "The declining emphasis on marriage rituals is an indication of changing societal attitudes towards marriage."

15.   rituals: (noun) formal or ceremonial acts or procedures that have symbolic or traditional significance. Example: "Rituals serve as signs of significant role changes and transitions in society."

16.   democratic: (adjective) relating to or supporting democracy; characterized by equality and fairness. Example: "The trend of blurring role signs in dress can be seen as a democratic approach, but it can also create insecurity."

17.   insecure: (adjective) uncertain or anxious about oneself; lacking

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18.   subordinate: (noun) a person who is lower in rank or position; someone who is under the authority of another. Example: "Without proper role signs, a subordinate may continue to perceive and respond to their superior as their boss."

19.   outward: (adjective) relating to the outside; external or visible. Example: "When changing roles, it is important to have some outward sign or indication to communicate the shift to others."

20.   decline: (noun) a gradual and continuous decrease or reduction in something. Example: "There has been a decline in the importance attached to traditional role signs in modern society."

21.   status: (noun) the position or standing of a person in relation to others; social rank or prestige. Example: "Dress can sometimes indicate the social status of individuals present in a gathering."

22.   perquisites: (noun) special privileges, benefits, or advantages associated with a particular position or role. Example: "Office signs and furniture are often used as perquisites to signify the status and role of individuals in organizations."

23.   frowned upon: (verb phrase) to disapprove or have a negative opinion of something; to consider something unacceptable or undesirable. Example: "Although they may be frowned upon, role signs can serve a purpose in establishing clarity and expectations."

24.   complete: (adjective) whole or entire; including all necessary parts or elements. Example: "Job descriptions are seldom complete role definitions, especially at higher management levels."

25.   subtle: (adjective) not obvious or easily noticeable; requiring careful observation or attention to perceive. Example: "Job descriptions often fail to capture the subtle and informal expectations associated with a role."

26.   unsaid: (adjective) not expressed or communicated in words; implied or understood without being explicitly stated. Example: "Incomplete job descriptions can leave individuals with a sense of things left unsaid about their role responsibilities."

27.   heighten: (verb) to increase or intensify; to make something more pronounced or extreme. Example: "Incomplete job descriptions can heighten the sense of role ambiguity and uncertainty."

28.   insecurity: (noun) a lack of confidence or certainty; a feeling of being uncertain or insecure about something. Example: "Lack of clarity in the role of the focal person can cause insecurity and irritation among members of the role set."

29.   confidence: (noun) a feeling of self-assurance or belief in one's abilities or qualities. Example: "Clarity in the role of the focal person can instill confidence and trust among members of the role set."

30.   irritation: (noun) a feeling of annoyance or frustration; a state of being bothered or irritated. Example: "Role ambiguity can lead to irritation and misunderstandings within the role set."

31.   anger: (noun) a strong feeling of displeasure, hostility, or rage. Example: "Unclear role expectations can cause anger and resentment among the members of the role set."

32.   executive: (noun) a person in a high-level managerial position, typically responsible for making important decisions. Example: "One of the roles of a manager is that of an executive, making strategic decisions for the organization."

33.   planner: (noun) someone who develops or formulates plans or strategies. Example: "A manager also serves as a planner, developing plans and strategies for achieving organizational goals."

34.   policy maker: (noun) an individual who formulates or establishes policies, rules, or guidelines. Example: "A manager may also have the role of a policy maker, shaping the direction and principles of the organization."

35.   expert: (noun) a person who has a high level of knowledge or skill in a particular field or subject. Example: "A manager is expected to be an expert in their area of specialization, providing guidance and expertise."

36.   controller: (noun) a person or entity that exercises authority or control over something. Example: "As a controller of rewards and punishments, a manager is responsible for managing performance and enforcing consequences."

37.   counselor: (noun) a person who provides advice, guidance, or support to others, often in a professional setting. Example: "A manager may take on the role of a counselor, offering guidance and support to their team members."

38.   friend: (noun) a person with whom one has a bond of mutual affection and trust. Example: "A manager can also play the role of a friend, fostering positive relationships and camaraderie within the team."

39.   teacher: (noun) a person who instructs or imparts knowledge or skills to others. Example: "A manager may assume the role of a teacher, providing coaching and mentoring to develop their team members."

40.   operational: (adjective) relating to the actual functioning or practical aspects of something. Example: "The role signs help determine which role is currently operational and guide appropriate responses."

41.   react: (verb) to respond or behave in a particular way in response to something. Example: "If the role of the focal person is unclear, the other party may not react appropriately to their communication."

42.   appropriate: (adjective) suitable, fitting, or proper in a particular context or circumstance. Example: "Role signs help ensure that individuals respond in an appropriate manner to the focal person's role."

43.   message: (noun) a piece of information or communication conveyed from one person to another. Example: "If role signs are absent, there is a risk of misinterpreting the intended message of the focal person."

44.   communicate: (verb) to convey or exchange information, thoughts, or feelings through speech, writing, or other means. Example: "Role signs serve as a way to communicate and signify the role one is occupying in a given context."

45.   ambiguity: (noun) the quality of being open to more than one interpretation or having uncertain meaning. Example: "Role ambiguity arises when there is uncertainty about the expectations and boundaries of a particular role."

46.   crucial: (adjective) extremely important or necessary; decisive or critical in determining an outcome. Example: "One of the crucial factors in shaping role definition is the individual's own understanding and expectations."

47.   shape: (verb) to influence the development or formation of something; to give a particular form or character to something. Example: "Role expectations shape and define the behaviors and responsibilities associated with a particular role."

48.   freedoms: (noun) the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint. Example: "The ability to shape one's own role is seen as one of the freedoms individuals desire in their professional lives."

49.   stress: (noun) mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from demanding circumstances or challenges. Example: " Role stress can occur when there is ambiguity or conflicting expectations within a role, leading to feelings of pressure and strain.

50.   job descriptions: (noun) written statements that outline the duties, responsibilities, and requirements of a particular job or role. Example: "Job descriptions provide a framework for role clarity and help reduce role ambiguity by defining the expectations of a position."

51.    

         ACADEMIC READING TEST-3

PASSAGE-1

THE DEPARTMENT OF ETHNOGRAPHY

1.       Ethnography: (noun) the scientific study and systematic recording of human cultures, customs, and social behavior. Example: "The Department of Ethnography focuses on studying and documenting various cultural practices and traditions."

2.       Antiquities: (noun) valuable and historically significant objects or artifacts from ancient times. Example: "The original Department of Antiquities collected and preserved archaeological treasures from different civilizations."

3.       Significance: (noun) the importance or meaning of something. Example: "The Department seeks to understand the significance of objects in different cultural contexts."

4.       Mundane: (adjective) ordinary, commonplace, or lacking interest or excitement. Example: "The Department collects both extraordinary artifacts and mundane objects that are part of everyday life."

5.       Artifacts: (noun) objects made by humans, usually of historical, cultural, or archaeological importance. Example: "The collections of the Department of Ethnography include a wide range of artifacts from diverse cultures."

6.       Emphasis: (noun) special attention or importance given to something. Example: "The Department places emphasis on understanding the cultural expressions of different societies."

7.       Anthropological: (adjective) relating to the study of human societies, cultures, and their development. Example: "Museum staff conducted anthropological projects to gather insights into cultural practices and traditions."

8.       Assemblages: (noun) collections or groups of objects brought together or assembled for a specific purpose. Example: "The field assemblages from various regions provided a comprehensive representation of material culture."

9.       Ecological: (adjective) relating to the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. Example: "The Department documents how different cultures adapt to ecological constraints and limited resources."

10.   Disposable: (adjective) designed to be thrown away after use; not intended for long-term use. Example: "In some cultures, what might be considered disposable in the West is recycled and reused."

11.   Assimilation: (noun) the process of adapting or integrating into a different cultural or social group. Example: "The assumption of rapid economic progress leading to the assimilation of small-scale societies proved incorrect."

12.   Marginal: (adjective) relating to a marginalized or peripheral group or community. Example: "Marginal communities can still survive and adapt despite changes in the global economy."

13.   Ingenuity: (noun) cleverness, inventiveness, or resourcefulness in solving problems or overcoming challenges. Example: "Traditional practices often rely on local ingenuity to overcome limited resources."

14.   Indigenous: (adjective) originating or occurring naturally in a particular place; native. Example: "The importation of cheap goods often leads to the decline of indigenous markets and local skills."

15.   Utilitarian: (adjective) designed for practical use or usefulness rather than beauty or decoration. Example: "Objects that may seem utilitarian to Westerners can hold aesthetic value in other cultures."

16.   Database: (noun) a structured collection of data stored and accessed electronically. Example: "Collections in the Department of Ethnography serve as an ever-expanding database for scholars and researchers."

17.   Multicultural: (adjective) relating to or consisting

17.   Multicultural: (adjective) relating to or consisting of multiple cultures or cultural groups. Example: "The Department of Ethnography operates in an increasingly multicultural European society."

18.   Context: (noun) the circumstances, environment, or setting in which something exists or occurs. Example: "Understanding the cultural practices requires considering the context in which they are performed."

19.   Documentation: (noun) the process of recording or providing written evidence or information. Example: "Acquisitions in the Department come with documentation that includes records and photographs of the social context."

20.   Aesthetics: (noun) the study or appreciation of beauty, especially in art and design. Example: "The Department provides information on non-Western aesthetics and techniques to artists and designers."

21.   Techniques: (noun) methods, skills, or procedures used in a particular field or activity. Example: "The Department explores various artistic techniques employed by different cultures."

22.   Educational: (adjective) relating to or providing education or instruction. Example: "The Department's collections serve educational purposes for schools, universities, and colleges of art and design."

23.   Adaptation: (noun) the process of adjusting to new conditions or modifying oneself to fit a different environment. Example: "The survival of marginal communities often relies on their ability to adapt to changing circumstances."

24.   Documentation: (noun) the process of recording or providing written evidence or information. Example: "The Museum emphasizes the importance of documentation to preserve cultural knowledge and practices."

25.   Categorize: (verb) to classify or arrange objects or ideas into categories or groups based on similarities or characteristics. Example: "The West often categorizes imported objects as 'art' based on their aesthetic value."

26.   Responsibility: (noun) the state or fact of being accountable or obligated to do something. Example: "The Department has a growing responsibility to provide information about non-Western cultures to a diverse audience."

27.   Scholars: (noun) people engaged in advanced study or research in a particular field, typically academia. Example: "The Department's collections are valuable resources for scholars studying various aspects of non-Western cultures."

28.   Material culture: (noun) the physical objects, artifacts, and possessions of a particular society or culture. Example: "The Department of Ethnography focuses on studying and documenting material culture from different regions."

29.   Ritual: (noun) a religious or solemn ceremony consisting of a series of actions performed in a prescribed order. Example: "The collections include objects used in rituals and religious ceremonies from diverse cultural traditions."

30.   Political structures: (noun) the organization, systems, or institutions that govern or influence political activities. Example: "The Department studies the political structures of ancient empires and complex kingdoms."

31.   Recycled: (verb) to convert waste materials into reusable materials through a process of treatment or reprocessing. Example: "In some cultures, waste is recycled and repurposed instead of being discarded."

32.   Fieldwork: (noun) research or investigation conducted in the field, usually involving direct observation or data collection. Example: "Museum staff conducted extensive fieldwork to collect artifacts and study cultural practices."

33.   Documentation: (noun) written or printed material that provides evidence or information about something. Example: "Acquisitions in the Department are accompanied by detailed documentation about their origins

34.   Preference: (noun) a greater liking or inclination towards one thing over another. Example: "The Department documents the evolving preferences in personal adornment and dress among different cultures."

35.   Middle Eastern: (adjective) relating to the countries or cultures of the region between Africa and Asia, including the Arabian Peninsula. Example: "The Department collects and studies cultural artifacts from various Middle Eastern countries."

36.   Evolution: (noun) the gradual development or change over time. Example: "The Department tracks the evolution of ceremony and material forms through its collections."

37.   Contact: (noun) communication or interaction between two or more groups or individuals. Example: "The Department possesses collections formed after the first contact with Europeans, representing a significant historical period."

38.   Perseverance: (noun) persistence in doing something despite challenges, obstacles, or setbacks. Example: "The survival of small-scale societies demonstrates their perseverance in maintaining their cultural traditions."

39.   Documentation: (noun) the process of recording or providing written evidence or information. Example: "Accompanying documentation helps researchers and scholars understand the historical and cultural context of the artifacts."

40.   Inverted: (adjective) reversed or turned inside out; opposite in position, direction, or effect. Example: "Attitudes toward trade and exchange can be inverted when considering the value and significance of objects in different cultures."

41.   Integration: (noun) the act or process of combining or bringing different parts together into a unified whole. Example: "Marginal communities often experience partial integration into the global economy while maintaining their cultural practices."

42.   Fickle: (adjective) changing frequently and unexpectedly; not constant or reliable. Example: "The global economy is known for its fickle nature, which impacts local communities and traditional markets."

43.   Manufactured: (adjective) produced or made in large quantities using machinery or industrial processes. Example: "The importation of manufactured goods has had a significant impact on local industries and craftsmanship."

44.   Prized: (adjective) highly valued or esteemed; cherished. Example: "Objects transformed by local ingenuity can become prized possessions in certain cultures due to their aesthetic value."

45.   Documentation: (noun) the process of recording or providing written evidence or information. Example: "The documentation accompanying acquisitions provides valuable insights into the social and cultural context."

46.   Indigenous: (adjective) originating or occurring naturally in a particular place; native. Example: "The Department focuses on preserving and studying indigenous art forms and cultural practices."

47.   Preserve: (verb) to protect, maintain, or keep intact from harm, decay, or loss. Example: "The Department's mission is to preserve and document the cultural heritage of different communities."

48.   Comprehensive: (adjective) complete, including all aspects or elements; thorough. Example: "The field assemblages provide a comprehensive representation of a particular culture's material culture."

49.   Ingest: (verb) to consume or take in (food, drink, or other substances) through the mouth. Example: "Some cultures have unique practices regarding the ingestion of food and the rituals associated with it."

50.   Cultural traditions: (noun) the customs, practices, beliefs, or rituals passed down through generations within a particular culture. Example: "The Department studies and documents various cultural traditions to understand their significance and evolution over

51.   Artifacts: (noun) objects made or modified by humans, typically of historical or cultural significance. Example: "The Department of Ethnography houses a vast collection of artifacts from different regions and time periods."

52.   Cultural expressions: (noun) the manifestations or representations of culture through various forms such as art, music, dance, and language. Example: "The Department focuses on studying the cultural expressions of small-scale societies around the world."

53.   Textiles: (noun) woven or knitted fabrics or materials used for clothing, decoration, or practical purposes. Example: "The Department has extensive collections of traditional textiles from Bolivia, Guatemala, Indonesia, and West Africa."

54.   Boats: (noun) watercraft used for transportation or leisure activities on water bodies. Example: "The Department's collections include diverse types of boats from different cultures, such as coracles, reed boats, kayaks, and dug-out canoes."

55.   Non-Western: (adjective) relating to or originating from cultures or regions outside of Western Europe and North America. Example: "The Department focuses on documenting and showcasing the art and material culture of non-Western societies."

56.   Societies: (noun) organized communities or groups of individuals sharing common customs, institutions, and cultural practices. Example: "The primary focus of the Department is to study small-scale societies and their cultural practices."

57.   Banal: (adjective) lacking in originality, freshness, or significance; ordinary or uninteresting. Example: "The Department explores the significance of both extraordinary and banal objects in different cultural contexts."

58.   Institution: (noun) an organization or establishment founded for a particular purpose, such as education, research, or preservation. Example: "The Department collaborates with various national governments and other institutions to carry out fieldwork and research."

59.   Ecological: (adjective) relating to the interrelationship between organisms and their environment. Example: "Limited resources and ecological constraints influence the material culture and practices of different societies."

60.   Herdsman: (noun) a person who tends, raises, and takes care of a herd of animals, typically livestock. Example: "The Department documents the necessities of life and material culture of an African herdsman."

PASSAGE-2                SECRETS OF THE FORESTS

1.       ventured: (verb) to undertake a risky or daring journey or course of action. Example: "Allan R Holmberg ventured into the jungle to study the Siriono Indians."

2.       isolated: (adjective) far away from other places, buildings, or people; remote. Example: "The Siriono Indians lived in an isolated area deep in the Bolivian Amazonia."

3.       strikingly: (adverb) in a way that is particularly noticeable or impressive. Example: "Holmberg described the Siriono's existence as strikingly backward."

4.       perpetual: (adjective) never-ending or constantly recurring. Example: "The Siriono's life was a perpetual search for food in the challenging environment."

5.       punishing: (adjective) extremely demanding or difficult; causing hardship. Example: "The Siriono faced a punishing task of finding enough food to sustain themselves."

6.       depleted: (adjective) used up or emptied of resources or supplies. Example: "When local resources became depleted, the tribe had to move on to find new ones."

7.       technology: (noun) the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry. Example: "According to Holmberg, the Siriono had limited access to technology and tools."

8.       handicapped: (adjective) having a physical or mental disability that significantly limits a person's abilities. Example: "Holmberg described the Siriono as one of the most handicapped peoples in the world."

9.       relics: (noun) objects or customs from a past time that are still surviving or remembered. Example: "The Siriono were seen as relics of a Stone Age culture in Amazonia."

10.   conception: (noun) a general idea or understanding of something. Example: "The popular conception of life in Amazonia portrayed it as hostile to civilization."

11.   ageless: (adjective) not affected or changed by time; timeless. Example: "The luxuriant forests of Amazonia were seen as ageless and unconquerable."

12.   hostile: (adjective) unfriendly, unfavorable, or antagonistic. Example: "The habitat in Amazonia was considered hostile to human settlement."

13.   simplicity: (noun) the quality or state of being simple or uncomplicated. Example: "Indian ways of life were seen as simplicity, adapted to the forest environment."

14.   adaptation: (noun) the process of adjusting or modifying something to suit new conditions or circumstances. Example: "The apparent adaptation of Indian lifestyles to the forest ecology was noted."

15.   evolutionarily: (adverb) in a manner related to or involving the process of biological evolution. Example: "The view that Amazonian tribes were evolutionarily backward was challenged."

16.   sustained: (verb) supported, maintained, or continued over a long period. Example: "Amazonia has supported sustained indigenous cultures for thousands of years."

17.   prehistoric: (adjective) relating to or existing in the period before recorded history. Example: "The prehistoric people of Amazonia developed advanced technologies and cultures."

18.   uncompromising: (adjective) not making concessions; inflexible or unyielding. Example: "The tropical environment of Amazonia was described as uncompromising."

19.   projection: (noun) the act of attributing one's own feelings, emotions, or characteristics to others. Example: "Investigators who argue otherwise have unwittingly projected the present onto the past."

20.   revised: (adjective) changed or corrected from a previous version. Example: "The evidence for a revised view of Amazonia challenges previous assumptions."

21.   tenable: (adjective) capable of being defended or maintained. Example: "An approach that excludes people from the equation is no longer tenable."

22.   ecosystems: (noun) a community of living organisms and their environment. Example: "Ecologists have studied the ecosystems of Amazonia and their interactions."

23.   inhabitants: (noun) the people or animals that live in a particular place. Example: "The inhabitants of Amazonia have a rich history of indigenous cultures."

24.   intervening: (adjective) occurring or situated between two points or events. Example: "In the intervening decades, the lives of the Siriono have undergone changes."

25.   legislation: (noun) laws, rules, or regulations enacted by a governing body. Example: "Policy makers struggle to define and implement appropriate legislation."

26.   extreme: (adjective) reaching a high degree or intensity; excessive. Example: "Opposing all development in Amazonia has led to extreme consequences."

27.   casualty: (noun) a person or thing that suffers as a result of a particular action or event. Example: "The environment has become a casualty in the clash between environmentalists and developers."

28.   habits: (noun) repeated behaviors or actions performed regularly. Example: "The hunting, fishing, and cultivation habits of indigenous Amazonians were misunderstood."

29.   representation: (noun) the act of depicting or portraying something. Example: "The habits of indigenous Amazonians were represented as harmful to the habitat."

30.   crucial: (adjective) extremely important or essential. Example: "The presence of indigenous tribes is crucial for the survival of the forest."

31.   judicious: (adjective) showing good judgment or wisdom in making decisions. Example: "With judicious management, selected parts of Amazonia can support more people."

32.   buried: (verb) placed or concealed under the ground or a solid surface. Example: "The buried past of Amazonia reveals insights into its prehistoric cultures."

33.   hope: (noun) a feeling of expectation or desire for something to happen. Example: "The long-buried past of Amazonia offers hope for its future."

34.   realization: (noun) an awareness or understanding of something previously unknown or unnoticed. Example: "The realization of Amazonia's human history challenges previous assumptions."

35.   political: (adjective) relating to government, public affairs, or power within a society. Example: "Leaders met to discuss how to balance economic development with political and environmental concerns."

36.   advance: (verb) to move forward or make progress. Example: "Developing countries seek to **

36.   advance: (verb) to move forward or make progress. Example: "Developing countries seek to advance their economies while preserving natural resources."

37.   legitimate: (adjective) conforming to the law or rules; valid or authentic. Example: "The challenge is to find a legitimate balance between development and environmental conservation."

38.   opposed: (adjective) in conflict or disagreement with; against. Example: "Some environmentalists are opposed to any kind of development in Amazonia."

39.   destructive: (adjective) causing great damage or harm. Example: "The region has experienced destructive development that harms the environment."

40.   representation: (noun) the action of speaking or acting on behalf of someone or something. Example: "The indigenous Amazonians need representation to protect their rights and interests."

41.   clash: (noun) a conflict or disagreement between two groups or individuals. Example: "The clash between environmentalists and developers has caused harm to the indigenous tribes."

42.   decades: (noun) periods of ten years; plural of "decade." Example: "The lives of the Siriono have changed over the decades since Holmberg's visit."

43.   understanding: (noun) knowledge or comprehension of a subject or situation. Example: "The understanding of Amazonia's history has evolved through recent research."

44.   assumptions: (noun) beliefs or ideas taken for granted without proof. Example: "The evidence challenges previous assumptions about Amazonia's human history."

45.   endured: (verb) suffered patiently or persistently; tolerated. Example: "The image of the Siriono as Stone Age relics has endured over time."

46.   abandoned: (verb) left behind or deserted; no longer in use or occupied. Example: "Some archaeological sites were abandoned by earlier cultures in Amazonia."

47.   ruins: (noun) the remains of a building, city, or civilization that has been destroyed or decayed. Example: "Archaeological ruins provide evidence of past cultures in Amazonia."

48.   interaction: (noun) the action or influence of people or things on one another. Example: "The interaction between humans and the natural environment shaped Amazonia's history."

49.   consequences: (noun) the results or effects of an action or decision. Example: "Extreme positions on development in Amazonia have had unintended consequences."

50.   wisdom: (noun) the quality of having experience, knowledge, and good judgment. Example: "The understanding of Amazonia's history provides valuable wisdom for the future."

PASSAGE-3

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 26-40 which are based on Reading Passage 3 below:

HIGHS & LOWS

1. gloomy: (adjective) dark and depressing; lacking light or cheer. Example: "The gloomy weather affected her mood, making her feel sad."

2. depression: (noun) a state of sadness and low mood. Example: "She experienced a period of depression during the winter months."

3. drastically: (adverb) in a way that is extreme or severe. Example: "The change in weather affected her routine drastically."

4. affected: (adjective) influenced or touched by something. Example: "His work and social life were affected by his low energy levels."

5. condition: (noun) the state of someone's physical or mental health. Example: "Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is a condition related to mood changes during specific seasons."

6. sufferers: (noun) people who experience pain, illness, or hardship. Example: "SAD sufferers often find it challenging to cope with the winter months."

7. exposed: (adjective) not protected or covered; subjected to a particular influence or condition. Example: "Children who are frequently exposed to ultraviolet light may have improved learning abilities."

8. ultraviolet: (adjective) relating to electromagnetic radiation beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum. Example: "Excessive exposure to ultraviolet rays can be harmful to the skin."

9. arranged: (verb) organized or planned in a particular way. Example: "Working hours are often arranged to accommodate breaks during the hottest part of the day."

10. siesta: (noun) a short nap or rest taken after the midday meal, especially in hot countries. Example: "In Spain, many people take a siesta during the afternoon to escape the heat."

11. links: (noun) connections or relationships between different things. Example: "Scientists are studying the links between weather patterns and human moods."

12. tempers: (noun) a person's state of mind in terms of their anger and emotional control. Example: "Hot weather is often associated with shorter tempers and increased irritability."

13. muggy: (adjective) uncomfortably warm and humid. Example: "The muggy weather made it difficult to concentrate."

14. relationship: (noun) the way in which two or more concepts, objects, or people are connected or related. Example: "There is a relationship between temperature and the occurrence of street riots."

15. frequency: (noun) the rate at which something occurs or is repeated. Example: "The frequency of riots increases during warmer weather."

16. dramatically: (adverb) in a striking or impressive manner. Example: "Crime rates can change dramatically depending on the weather conditions."

17. merely: (adverb) only; simply. Example: "The increase in trouble during hot weather is not merely due to mood changes."

18. distraction: (noun) a thing that prevents someone from giving their full attention to something else. Example: "Feeling cold served as a distraction for the divers and affected their performance."

19. skeptical: (adjective) doubtful; inclined to question or doubt accepted opinions or beliefs. Example: "People may become less skeptical and more optimistic during sunny weather."

20. apparently: (adverb) as far as one knows or can see; seemingly. Example: "Apparently, the length of daylight hours affects people's m

1. temperature-controlled: (adjective) adjusted or regulated according to the desired temperature. Example: "The restaurant had a temperature-controlled environment to ensure comfort for its customers."

2. borne out: (phrasal verb) confirmed or supported by evidence. Example: "The study's findings bore out the belief that rainy weather affects people's mood."

3. cues: (noun) signals or indications that guide or prompt a particular action or response. Example: "Changing lengths of day and night provide time cues for animals' behavioral changes."

4. coping: (noun) dealing effectively with something difficult or challenging. Example: "Animals develop behavioral changes as a way of coping with the cycle of seasons."

5. disturbed: (adjective) agitated or unsettled; not calm or peaceful. Example: "Her disturbed mood was noticeable during the thunderstorm."

6. irritable: (adjective) easily annoyed or provoked; having a tendency to be grouchy or short-tempered. Example: "The hot and humid weather made her irritable and impatient."

7. reactive: (adjective) responsive or sensitive to external stimuli; prone to reacting quickly. Example: "High levels of serotonin can make individuals more reactive and prone to aggression."

8. aggressive: (adjective) hostile or forceful in behavior or attitude. Example: "Some individuals exhibit aggressive behavior during thunderstorms due to increased serotonin levels."

9. wind: (noun) a natural movement of air, especially a current moving along or parallel to the ground. Example: "Certain winds, like the Mistral in southern France, can affect people's mood and increase the number of accidents."

10. concentration: (noun) the action or power of focusing one's attention or mental effort. Example: "The noise from the wind disturbed her concentration while studying."

11. ionizers: (noun) devices or machines that produce ions, usually negative ions, to improve air quality. Example: "Ionizers are used to increase the number of negative ions in the air, creating a better environment."

12. associated: (adjective) connected or linked with something. Example: "There is an associated increase in negative emotions during a thunderstorm."

13. evidence: (noun) facts or information that support a belief, claim, or hypothesis. Example: "Scientific studies provide evidence of the relationship between weather and human moods."

14. suicidal: (adjective) having a tendency or inclination to commit suicide. Example: "People experiencing suicidal feelings may be more likely to reach out for help during rainy weather."

15. brewing: (adjective) developing or beginning to form. Example: "The brewing thunderstorm created a sense of anticipation in the air."

16. irritable: (adjective) easily annoyed or provoked; having a tendency to be grouchy or short-tempered. Example: "She becomes irritable when the weather is hot and humid."

17. edge: (noun) a state of nervousness or tension. Example: "The impending storm put everyone on edge."

18. intense: (adjective) extreme in degree, strength, or force. Example: "Large thunderclouds can generate intense electrical fields during a storm."

19. serotonin: (noun) a neurotransmitter that plays a role in regulating mood and other functions. Example: "High levels of serotonin in the brain can affect a person's mood and behavior."

20. impair: (verb) weaken or damage something (such as mental or physical abilities).

1. functioning: (noun) the way in which something works or operates. Example: "The diver's mental functioning was impaired by the cold water."

2. divers: (noun) individuals who engage in underwater activities such as diving. Example: "The researchers compared the performance of divers in different water temperatures."

3. significantly: (adverb) in a noteworthy or important manner; to a significant degree. Example: "The diver's performance was significantly affected by the temperature of the water."

4. counseling: (noun) the process of providing guidance, support, and advice to someone. Example: "The counseling service received more calls from individuals during rainy weather."

5. associates: (verb) connects or links with something or someone. Example: "People often associate rainy weather with negative emotions."

6. believable: (adjective) capable of being believed or accepted as true. Example: "The evidence for a connection between weather and mood makes the relationship believable."

7. pineal gland: (noun) a small endocrine gland in the brain that produces melatonin. Example: "The pineal gland is responsible for the production of melatonin, a hormone related to sleep and mood."

8. triggered: (verb) caused or set off a reaction or response. Example: "Changes in melatonin levels can trigger behavioral changes in certain animals."

9. weight: (noun) the amount or quantity of heaviness of a person or thing. Example: "Hamsters put on more weight when their melatonin levels are decreasing."

10. negative: (adjective) characterized by the absence or opposite of a positive quality. Example: "Many people claim to feel better in negatively charged air."

         ACADEMIC READING TEST-4

READING PASSAGE 1

1. focus: (noun) the center of interest, attention, or activity. Example: "Air pollution is increasingly becoming the focus of government and citizen concern."

2. implemented: (verb) put into effect; carried out. Example: "New solutions to air pollution are being implemented around the globe."

3. enforcement: (noun) the act of ensuring compliance with rules, laws, or regulations. Example: "Improved enforcement of anti-pollution laws is necessary to combat air pollution."

4. innovative: (adjective) introducing or using new ideas, methods, or technologies. Example: "Innovative technology is being employed to tackle air pollution."

5. legislation: (noun) laws, rules, or regulations created and enacted by a governing body. Example: "New legislation is being introduced to address air pollution concerns."

6. renting out: (verb phrase) allowing someone to use or occupy something in exchange for payment. Example: "In Singapore, renting out road space is seen as a future solution to air pollution."

7. offenders: (noun) individuals or entities that commit an offense or a wrongdoing. Example: "Older cars were identified as the worst offenders in terms of air pollution."

8. decrepit: (adjective) worn out or ruined due to age or neglect. Example: "California aims to remove the most decrepit vehicles from the roads."

9. gauges: (verb) measures or estimates the amount, quantity, or extent of something. Example: "An infra-red spectrometer is used to gauge the pollution emitted by vehicles."

10. infra-red: (adjective) relating to electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than those of visible light. Example: "The council is using an infra-red spectrometer to measure vehicle pollution."

11. disturbing: (adjective) causing anxiety, worry, or unease; unsettling. Example: "Research in Southern California has reached disturbing conclusions about particulate matter pollution."

12. implicated: (verb) shown or proven to be involved in or connected to something negative or harmful. Example: "PM10, a sub-category of particulate matter, has been implicated in thousands of deaths."

13. acutely: (adverb) intensely; in a severe or extreme manner. Example: "The elderly and ill are acutely vulnerable to the effects of polluted air."

14. linger: (verb) stay in a place longer than necessary, typically because of a reluctance to leave. Example: "A cloud of exhaust fumes lingered over London for over a week."

15. reverse: (verb) change to an opposite or different direction, position, or course. Example: "Efforts are being made to reverse established trends in air pollution."

16. proportion: (noun) a part, share, or number considered in relation to a whole. Example: "The pressure to combat air pollution will grow in proportion to the growth of cities."

17. combat: (verb) take action to reduce, eliminate, or prevent something undesirable. Example: "Public officials are taking measures to combat air pollution."

18. enacted: (verb) make (a bill or proposal) law. Example: "New regulations have been enacted to address the issue of air pollution."

1. vulnerable: (adjective) susceptible to physical or emotional harm, often due to being weak or unprotected. Example: "Children and the elderly are particularly vulnerable to the effects of air pollution."

2. proposed: (adjective) suggested or put forward for consideration or discussion. Example: "New solutions to air pollution are being proposed by governments and organizations."

3. megacities: (noun) extremely large cities with populations exceeding 10 million. Example: "According to the United Nations, there will be twenty-four megacities by the year 2000."

4. guidelines: (noun) recommended principles or rules used to inform or direct actions or decisions. Example: "Many cities exceed the guidelines set by the World Health Organization for air quality."

5. implication: (noun) a likely consequence or result of something. Example: "The implication of increased air pollution is a rise in respiratory illnesses."

6. congestion: (noun) excessive overcrowding or blockage, typically causing a hindrance or delay. Example: "Increasing the number of people in cars would help alleviate traffic congestion."

7. sophistication: (noun) the quality of being advanced, complex, or intricate. Example: "Electronic innovations have allowed for increasing sophistication in road-pricing systems."

8. controversial: (adjective) causing disagreement, discussion, or argument. Example: "Road-pricing can be a controversial topic, as it involves charging drivers for road usage."

9. reversal: (noun) a change to an opposite or previous condition or direction. Example: "Efforts to reduce air pollution aim for a reversal of current trends."

10. acquisition: (noun) the process of gaining or obtaining something. Example: "The acquisition of clean cars is a crucial step in reducing air pollution."

11. reluctance: (noun) unwillingness or hesitation in doing something. Example: "There is a reluctance among some individuals to adopt car-pooling as a solution."

12. innocuous: (adjective) not harmful or offensive; unlikely to cause any negative effects. Example: "Some pollutants are relatively innocuous, while others pose significant health risks."

13. particulate: (adjective) composed of tiny particles or solid matter suspended in a liquid or gas. Example: "Particulate matter in the air can have adverse effects on human health."

14. estimated: (adjective) roughly calculated or approximated. Example: "The estimated cost of reducing carbon dioxide emissions is quite high."

15. conclusions: (noun) final decisions or judgments reached after considering all the information. Example: "The researchers drew alarming conclusions about the impact of particulate matter pollution."

16. campaigning: (verb) engaging in a series of organized activities or efforts to achieve a goal. Example: "Local authorities in London are campaigning for the power to enforce anti-pollution laws."

17. compliance: (noun) the act of adhering to rules, regulations, or laws. Example: "Improved compliance with pollution control measures is essential for reducing air pollution."

18. infrastructure: (noun) the basic physical structures and facilities needed for the operation of a society or system. Example: "Investing in sustainable

1. schemes: (noun) planned or organized systems or projects designed to achieve a particular goal. Example: "Singapore has implemented various schemes to address air pollution, such as road-pricing."

2. opposition: (noun) resistance or disagreement expressed against a person, idea, or action. Example: "The local government faced opposition when considering implementing Singaporean techniques."

3. conducted: (verb) carried out; performed. Example: "Research is being conducted to understand the effects of air pollution on public health."

4. leverage: (noun) the power or ability to influence or control situations or people. Example: "Governments are using their leverage to push for stricter air pollution regulations."

5. standard: (noun) a level of quality, achievement, or attainment regarded as typical or acceptable. Example: "The annual stationary test is the current standard for measuring vehicle pollution."

6. estimates: (noun) approximate calculations or assessments of the value, quantity, or extent of something. Example: "The United Nations has provided estimates on the future growth of cities and their pollution levels."

7. participation: (noun) the act of taking part in or engaging in an activity or event. Example: "Increased participation in car-pooling would help reduce individual car usage."

8. environmental: (adjective) relating to the natural world and the impact of human activity on its condition. Example: "An environmental programme aims to address the issues of air pollution in a London council."

9. tendency: (noun) a likelihood or inclination to act or behave in a particular way. Example: "The tendency to drive cars more is contributing to the increase in air pollution."

10. overcrowding: (noun) a situation in which there are too many people or things in a particular space. Example: "Megacities often face challenges related to overcrowding and its impact on air quality."

11. hasten: (verb) cause something to happen sooner or more quickly. Example: "Polluted air can hasten health problems and even lead to premature death."

12. emissions: (noun) substances or gases released into the atmosphere, typically as a result of human activities. Example: "Reducing vehicle emissions is a key strategy in combating air pollution."

13. established: (adjective) accepted and recognized as a standard or authority. Example: "Efforts are being made to challenge established norms and practices in pollution control."

14. phenomenon: (noun) a fact or event that can be observed and is considered interesting or significant. Example: "The rise in allergies and asthma is a phenomenon linked to increased air pollution."

PASSAGE-2                  

VOTES FOR WOMEN

1. suffragette: (noun) a woman advocating for the right to vote, especially as a member of the women's suffrage movement. Example: "The suffragette movement fought for women's right to vote."

2. militant: (adjective) engaging in confrontational or aggressive actions in support of a cause. Example: "The suffragette movement included both peaceful protesters and more militant activists."

3. archive: (noun) a collection of historical records or documents. Example: "The Museum of London used its archive collection to create the suffragette exhibition."

4. corporate: (adjective) relating to a unified group or organization. Example: "The Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) projected a corporate identity with their color scheme."

5. nationwide: (adjective) extending or reaching across an entire nation. Example: "The WSPU aimed to create a nationwide image for the suffragette movement."

6. campaigner: (noun) a person actively involved in promoting a cause or influencing public opinion. Example: "Mrs Emmeline Pankhurst was a prominent campaigner for women's suffrage."

7. enfranchise: (verb) give the right to vote to. Example: "The suffragettes aimed to enfranchise women and secure their voting rights."

8. cohesion: (noun) the action or fact of forming a united whole. Example: "The color scheme brought cohesion to the suffragette movement."

9. deserted: (verb) left or abandoned completely. Example: "Women deserted other groups to join the WSPU."

10. headquarters: (noun) the main office or central location of an organization. Example: "The WSPU established their headquarters in Charing Cross Road."

11. communication: (noun) the imparting or exchanging of information or news. Example: "Despite limited communication channels, the suffragette message spread across the country."

12. invaluable: (adjective) extremely useful or valuable. Example: "The newspapers produced by the WSPU were invaluable in disseminating information."

13. fund-raising: (noun) the act of collecting money for a particular purpose. Example: "The suffragettes engaged in various fund-raising activities to support their cause."

14. advertising: (noun) the activity of promoting products or services through paid announcements. Example: "Large department stores engaged in advertising in suffragette newspapers."

15. merchandising: (noun) the activity of promoting and selling products through various methods. Example: "The WSPU engaged in merchandising of goods in their signature colors."

16. opportunity: (noun) a favorable or advantageous circumstance or occasion. Example: "British women wanted the opportunity to vote, like their counterparts in other countries."

17. coffers: (noun) a store or supply of money or valuables. Example: "Fund-raising activities filled the coffers of the WSPU's 'war chest'."

18. exhibition: (noun) a public display of works of art, artifacts, or other items of interest. Example: "The Museum of London's suffragette exhibition showcased numerous items from that era."

1. uniform: (adjective) consistent or identical in form, nature, or design. Example: "The suffragettes adopted a uniform of a white frock with purple, white, and green accessories."

2. accessories: (noun) additional items that enhance or accompany something. Example: "Suffragettes wore purple, white, and green accessories to symbolize their cause."

3. trinkets: (noun) small decorative items of little value. Example: "The WSPU sold trinkets in the suffragette colors as part of their merchandising."

4. communication: (noun) the imparting or exchanging of information or news. Example: "Photographs and banners were used as a means of communication during suffragette marches."

5. responsible: (adjective) having an obligation to do something or care for someone. Example: "The suffragettes felt responsible for advocating women's rights and equality."

6. talented: (adjective) having a natural aptitude or skill in a particular area. Example: "The WSPU had talented members who contributed artwork for the movement."

7. propaganda: (noun) information, especially biased or misleading, used to promote a particular political cause or point of view. Example: "The suffragette movement utilized propaganda to raise awareness about their cause."

8. cinema: (noun) a theater where movies are shown. Example: "The short film shown at the exhibition included old newsreels and cinema footage."

9. depicting: (verb) showing or representing by a drawing, painting, or other art form. Example: "The film began by depicting a negative portrayal of suffragettes by their opponents."

10. fierce: (adjective) having or displaying an intense or ferocious aggressiveness. Example: "The antis portrayed suffragettes as fierce and aggressive individuals."

11. opposed: (adjective) in conflict or disagreement with something or someone. Example: "The 'antis' were opposed to the idea of women gaining the right to vote."

12. original: (adjective) existing from the beginning; first or earliest. Example: "The exhibition displayed original newsreel footage of key suffragette events."

PASSAGE-3

MEASURING ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE

1.       evidence: (noun) facts or information that indicate whether something is true or valid. Example: "There is clear-cut evidence to support the effectiveness of supervision in increasing productivity."

2.       significant: (adjective) important or notable; having a meaning or impact. Example: "The study found significant differences in productivity between the two experimental programs."

3.       organised: (adjective) arranged or structured in a systematic manner. Example: "The four divisions were organised in the same way, using identical technology and performing similar tasks."

4.       aptitude: (noun) natural ability or talent for a particular skill or activity. Example: "The employees in all divisions had comparable aptitude for clerical work."

5.       entail: (verb) involve or require as a necessary part or consequence. Example: "The nature of the business entailed processing accounts and generating invoices."

6.       random: (adjective) lacking a pattern or plan; happening without a specific order. Example: "The divisions were assigned to experimental programs in a random manner to eliminate bias."

7.       continuous: (adjective) happening without interruption or break. Example: "Productivity was continuously measured and computed throughout the year."

8.       attitude: (noun) a person's opinions, beliefs, or feelings toward something. Example: "The study measured employees' attitudes toward their work before and after the experimental period."

9.       endeavor: (verb) attempt or try to achieve something. Example: "Managers were trained in group leadership methods, which they endeavored to use during the experiment."

10.   label: (verb) assign a particular name or category to something. Example: "The experimental changes in the two divisions were labeled as the 'participative program'."

11.   modify: (verb) make partial changes to something; alter or adjust. Example: "The supervision in the other two divisions was modified to increase closeness and higher decision levels."

12.   extension: (noun) an act of making something larger, longer, or more extensive. Example: "The scientific management approach was extended to make changes in the hierarchically controlled divisions."

13.   overstaffed: (adjective) having more staff or employees than necessary. Example: "The study revealed that the two divisions were overstaffed by approximately 30%."

14.   dismiss: (verb) remove or discharge someone from employment or a position. Example: "No one was to be dismissed, but staff reductions were achieved through transfers."

15.   reflect: (verb) show or demonstrate a particular quality or attribute. Example: "Figure 1 reflects the changes in productivity in the different divisions."

16.   substantial: (adjective) significant in amount, size, or importance; considerable. Example: "Direct pressures resulted in a substantial increase in production."

17.   participate: (verb) take part in an activity or event. Example: "Clerks in the participative program participated in the decision-making process to reduce the work group size."

18.   improvement: (noun) a positive change or progress in something. Example: "The participative division experienced an improvement in productivity."

19.   respects: (noun) aspects or features

20.   adverse: (adjective) unfavorable or harmful in nature; negative. Example: "The hierarchically controlled program led to shifts in adverse factors such as attitudes and loyalty."

21.   responsibility: (noun) the state or fact of being accountable for something or someone. Example: "In the participative program, employees felt a greater responsibility to ensure the work got done."

22.   absent: (adjective) not present; missing or unavailable. Example: "In the hierarchically controlled program, work tended to stop when the supervisor was absent."

23.   closer: (adjective) having a shorter physical or emotional distance; more intimate or connected. Example: "Employees in the participative program felt that their managers were closer to them."

24.   pull: (verb) support or advocate for someone or something; promote or favor. Example: "In the participative program, supervisors were seen as more likely to pull for both the employees and the company."

25.   trend: (noun) a general direction or pattern of change over time. Example: "In the hierarchically controlled program, an opposite trend occurred in employees' perceptions of their supervisors."

26.   accompanied: (verb) go or be together with something; coexist. Example: "The productivity increases in the hierarchically controlled program were accompanied by negative shifts in attitudes."

27.   loyalty: (noun) faithfulness or allegiance to a person, group, or cause. Example: "Attitudes of loyalty towards the company decreased in the hierarchically controlled program."

28.   interest: (noun) the state of wanting to know or learn about something. Example: "In the hierarchically controlled program, employees showed a decrease in interest in their work."

29.   involvement: (noun) the act or state of being included or participating in something. Example: "Employees in the participative program had a higher sense of involvement in their work."

30.   achievement: (noun) something accomplished successfully; a notable accomplishment. Example: "The study measured the achievements of the different programs in terms of productivity."

31.   impact: (noun) the effect or influence that something has on a person, thing, or situation. Example: "The direct pressures had a significant impact on production."

32.   adhere: (verb) stick or hold firmly to something; follow or comply with. Example: "Managers were trained to adhere to the principles of group leadership."

33.   strategy: (noun) a plan or approach designed to achieve a specific goal or objective. Example: "The two divisions implemented different strategies in terms of supervision and decision-making."

34.   evaluate: (verb) assess, appraise, or determine the value, importance, or effectiveness of something. Example: "The study aimed to evaluate the impact of different programs on productivity and attitudes."

35.   conduct: (verb) carry out or manage a particular activity or process. Example: "Management was responsible for conducting the experiments and collecting data."

36.   eliminate: (verb) completely remove or get rid of something. Example: "The study aimed to eliminate bias by assigning divisions to programs on a random basis."

37.   indicate: (verb) point out, show, or suggest as a sign or indication of something. Example

38.   achieve: (verb) successfully bring about or accomplish a desired result. Example: "The study aimed to achieve an increase in productivity through the experimental programs."

39.   factor: (noun) a circumstance, fact, or influence that contributes to a result or outcome. Example: "The hierarchically controlled program had an adverse effect on factors such as attitudes and involvement."

40.   shift: (noun) a change or movement in something; a departure from the previous state. Example: "The productivity increases in the hierarchically controlled program were accompanied by shifts in attitudes."

41.   perception: (noun) the way in which something is regarded, understood, or interpreted. Example: "Employees' perception of their managers changed in the participative program."

42.   implementation: (noun) the process of putting a decision, plan, or policy into effect. Example: "The two programs differed in their implementation of supervision and decision-making methods."

43.   comparable: (adjective) similar or equivalent in certain respects; able to be compared. Example: "The four divisions had employees of comparable aptitude for clerical work."

44.   method: (noun) a particular way of doing something; a systematic or organized approach. Example: "Managers were trained in group methods of leadership."

45.   extent: (noun) the degree, scope, or range to which something applies or is valid. Example: "The study aimed to determine the extent to which a manager's earnings record could be influenced."

46.   poorest: (adjective) lowest in quality, value, or performance; worst. Example: "The historically poorest division in the participative program showed a smaller increase in productivity."

47.   conscious: (adjective) aware of and responding to one's surroundings; awake and alert. Example: "The clerks in the participative program were conscious of the productivity increases sought by management."

48.   compute: (verb) calculate or reckon a figure or amount. Example: "Standard times were computed to assess the staffing needs in the hierarchically controlled divisions."

49.   division: (noun) a separate part or section of something. Example: "The study covered 500 clerical employees in four parallel divisions."

50.   experiments: (noun) scientific tests or investigations conducted to gather data or validate a hypothesis. Example: "The managers were responsible for conducting the experiments and measuring productivity."