Cambridge IELTS 18 Reading Vocabulary

Fakhruddin Babar
Apr 6, 2024
56 min read

Updated: Oct 21, 2025

Cambridge Academic IELTS 18

Test-1

Passage -1 Urban farming

Urban farming refers to the practice of cultivating and producing food within urban areas, such as cities, using innovative and space-efficient techniques. It is a method of agriculture that aims to address the challenges of limited space, resource scarcity, and environmental concerns associated with traditional farming practices.

Soil-free approach: A farming method that does not rely on traditional soil for plant growth. Instead, alternative mediums such as coconut fiber or water-based solutions are used to provide nutrients to the plants.

Agriculture: The science and practice of cultivating plants and rearing animals for food, fiber, medicinal plants, and other products used to sustain and enhance human life.

Resources: Materials, energy, and other assets necessary for the production and maintenance of agricultural activities.

Threats: Dangers or risks that could potentially harm or negatively impact something. In this context, the threats refer to challenges faced by cities in maintaining their food supplies.

Exhibition hall: A large building or space used for public exhibitions or displays of art, products, or other items of interest.

Rooftop farm: A farm located on the roof of a building, utilizing the available space to grow crops and raise livestock.

Strawberries: Small, red fruits that are known for their sweet taste. They are a popular fruit and commonly used in various culinary applications.

Intensely flavored: Having a strong or concentrated taste or flavor.

Resplendently: In a visually impressive or splendid manner.

Sprout: To grow or develop from a seed, usually referring to the initial growth of a plant.

Plastic tubes: Hollow cylindrical structures made of plastic material.

Dangling down: Hanging or extending downward.

Vertical tubes: Tubes positioned in a vertical orientation.

Lettuces: Leafy green vegetables commonly used in salads.

Aromatic herbs: Herbs known for their pleasant fragrance and flavor. Examples include basil, sage, and peppermint.

Coconut fiber: The fibrous material obtained from the husk of a coconut. It is used as a growing medium in soilless farming systems.

Cherry tomatoes: Small-sized tomatoes that are typically sweet and flavorful.

Shiny aubergines: Glossy or lustrous eggplants, also known as aubergines, which are dark purple or blackish in color.

Brightly colored chards: Colorful leafy vegetables from the chard family, often used for their edible leaves and stalks.

Engineer: A person trained and skilled in designing, building, or maintaining machinery, structures, or systems.

Sustainable development consultant: An individual who provides guidance and advice on sustainable practices and strategies for development projects.

Experimenting: Conducting tests or trials to gain knowledge or experience.

Aeroponic: A method of growing plants in an air or mist environment without soil, using a nutrient-rich solution to nourish the plants.

Paris apartment block: A residential building or complex in Paris consisting of multiple apartments.

Urban rooftop space: The available area on the roof of a building situated in an urban environment.

Football pitches: The playing surface used for football (soccer), typically rectangular in shape.

Harvest: To gather or collect crops or produce at the end of a growing season.

Varieties: Different types or kinds of fruits and vegetables.

Consumption: The act of using or consuming something, often referring to the consumption of food.

Consultancy: The practice of providing expert advice and assistance in a particular field or industry.

Advantages: Positive attributes or benefits.

Pesticides: Chemical substances used to control or eliminate pests, such as insects or weeds, that can damage crops.

Intensive farming techniques: Agricultural practices that aim to maximize productivity by using high inputs of resources such as fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery.

Greenhouse gases: Gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, that contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming when released into the atmosphere.

Producers: Individuals or entities involved in the production or cultivation of goods or commodities.

Organic nutrients: Nutrients derived from organic sources, such as compost or natural substances, that provide essential elements for plant growth.

Closed circuit: A system in which resources, such as water or air, are continuously recycled or reused within a confined environment.

Classic intensive farm: A traditional agricultural operation that utilizes conventional farming methods, including the use of soil, large amounts of water, and extensive land.

Yield: The amount of crops or produce obtained from a farming operation or a specific area of land.

Phenomenon: A notable or significant occurrence or event.

Inner-city agriculture: The practice of cultivating plants and raising animals within the confines of urban areas.

Disused shipping containers: Containers that were previously used for shipping goods but are no longer in use.

Mushrooms: Fungi that are commonly consumed as food and have various culinary uses.

Underground carparks: Parking facilities located underground, typically beneath buildings or public spaces.

Virtuous: Having moral or ethical excellence; in this context, referring to the positive attributes or benefits of aeroponic farming.

Equipment: Tools, machinery, or devices used for a specific purpose.

Flat surface: A level or even area that lacks significant slopes or irregularities.

Cheap to buy: Inexpensive or affordable to purchase.

Cheap to run: Cost-effective in terms of ongoing operational expenses or maintenance.

Electricity: The form of energy resulting from the flow of electric charge.

Classic intensive agriculture: Traditional farming practices that rely heavily on manual labor, large-scale land use, and conventional methods.

Soil-based organic growers: Farmers who cultivate crops using traditional organic farming practices, relying on soil as the primary growing medium.

Root vegetables: Vegetables that are grown for their edible roots or tubers, such as carrots, potatoes, and radishes.

Fast-changing picture: An evolving and dynamic situation or trend.

Bringing food production closer to our lives: The process of making food production more accessible and integrated within urban areas, allowing consumers to have a closer connection to the source of their food.

Inner-city agriculture: The practice of cultivating crops and raising livestock within urban areas, often in vacant lots, rooftops, or community gardens.

Culinary applications: Various uses of food in cooking and food preparation.

Limited space: Restricted or confined area that poses challenges for traditional farming practices.

Resource scarcity: Insufficient availability of necessary resources, such as land, water, or energy.

Environmental concerns: Issues related to the impact of human activities on the natural environment, including pollution, habitat destruction, and climate change.

Innovative techniques: Creative and novel approaches or methods used in farming to overcome limitations and improve efficiency.

Sustainability: The ability to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, often emphasizing environmental, social, and economic balance.

Edible: Suitable for consumption as food.

Resistant to: Able to withstand or endure the effects of something.

Recycled: The process of reusing or reutilizing materials or resources to minimize waste.

Classic intensive agriculture: Conventional farming practices characterized by large-scale monoculture, heavy use of synthetic inputs, and mechanization.

Commodities: Agricultural products or raw materials that can be bought, sold, or traded.

Phases: Different stages or periods of development or growth.

Interconnected: Having connections or relationships with one another.

Sustainable food systems: Systems that promote the production, distribution, and consumption of food in a manner that is environmentally friendly, socially equitable, and economically viable.

Food security: The state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable and nutritious food.

Self-sufficiency: The ability to meet one's own needs or requirements without external assistance.

Resilience: The capacity to recover quickly from difficulties or adapt to changes.

Local economy: The economic activities and transactions that occur within a particular geographic area or community.

Diverse: Having a variety of different elements or components.

Vertical farming: A method of farming that involves growing crops in vertically stacked layers or structures, often in indoor environments.

Hydroponics: A soilless farming technique that involves growing plants in nutrient-rich water solutions.

Aquaponics: An integrated system that combines aquaculture (raising fish) and hydroponics (growing plants in water) in a symbiotic relationship.

Permaculture: A design system that aims to create sustainable and self-sufficient ecosystems by utilizing natural patterns and principles.

Food desert: An area, typically in urban settings, where access to fresh, affordable, and nutritious food is limited or nonexistent.

Community-supported agriculture (CSA): A model of food production and distribution in which consumers purchase shares or subscriptions directly from local farmers, receiving a regular supply of fresh produce.

Food sovereignty: The right of individuals and communities to control their own food systems, including production, distribution, and consumption.

Agribusiness: Large-scale commercial agriculture that integrates farming, processing, distribution, and marketing activities.

Organic farming: A method of agriculture that emphasizes the use of natural inputs and practices to promote ecological balance and reduce the use of synthetic chemicals.

Regenerative agriculture: An approach to farming that seeks to restore and enhance the health of ecosystems, focusing on soil health, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration.

Food miles: The distance that food travels from its place of production to the consumer.

Food waste: Edible food that is discarded or thrown away, often due to overproduction, spoilage, or consumer behavior.

Farm-to-table: A movement that promotes the direct sourcing of food from local farmers and producers to restaurants and consumers, reducing the distance and time between production and consumption.

Biodiversity: The variety and abundance of living organisms in a particular ecosystem or on Earth as a whole.

Crop rotation: The practice of systematically changing the types of crops grown in a particular area over time to improve soil fertility, control pests, and reduce disease incidence.

Integrated pest management (IPM): An approach to pest control that utilizes a combination of preventive measures, biological controls, and judicious use of pesticides to minimize environmental impact while effectively managing pests.

Agroecology: The study and practice of applying ecological principles to agricultural systems, promoting biodiversity, minimizing chemical inputs, and enhancing ecosystem services.

Food safety: Measures and practices aimed at ensuring that food is free from contaminants, toxins, or pathogens that could pose a risk to human health.

Sustainable development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, considering social, economic, and environmental factors.

Food sovereignty: The right of individuals, communities, and nations to determine their own food and agriculture policies, including the right to define and control their own food systems.

Urban agriculture: The practice of cultivating, processing, and distributing food in urban areas, often involving community gardens, rooftop farms, or vertical farming systems.

Peri-urban farming: Agricultural activities that take place in the transition zone between urban and rural areas, often characterized by small-scale farming and proximity to urban markets.

Community garden: A piece of land, often collectively managed by a group of individuals or a community, where people can grow their own food and cultivate plants.

Food justice: The equitable distribution of healthy, affordable, and culturally appropriate food, addressing social and economic inequalities in access to nutritious food.

Food waste: Edible food that is discarded or wasted at various stages of the food supply chain, including production, processing, distribution, and consumption.

Food security: The state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable and nutritious food that meets dietary needs and preferences.

Food sovereignty: The right of individuals, communities, and nations to control their own food systems, including production, distribution, and consumption, in a way that is culturally, socially, and environmentally sustainable.

Food desert: An area, typically in urban settings, where access to fresh, affordable, and nutritious food is limited or nonexistent.

Seed saving: The practice of collecting and preserving seeds from open-pollinated or heirloom varieties of plants for future planting and cultivation.

Slow food: A movement that advocates for local, sustainable, and traditional food production and consumption, promoting cultural diversity and gastronomic heritage.

Farmers' market: A market where local farmers and producers directly sell their fresh produce, meats, and other agricultural products to consumers.

Food co-op: A cooperative enterprise where consumers collectively own and operate a grocery store or market, often focusing on locally sourced and organic foods.

Organic certification: The process by which farms and food producers undergo evaluation and inspection to meet specific standards for organic production, ensuring that they adhere to organic principles and practices.

Fair trade: A movement that aims to promote equitable trading relationships and better working conditions for small-scale farmers and producers in developing countries, ensuring fair prices and sustainable practices.

Food labeling: The information provided on food packaging or labels, including nutritional content, ingredients, allergens, and certifications.

Biosecurity: Measures and protocols implemented to prevent the introduction and spread of pests, diseases, or contaminants in agricultural systems.

Sustainable packaging: The use of environmentally friendly materials and design strategies in food packaging to minimize waste, promote recyclability, and reduce environmental impact.

Food system: The interconnected network of activities, processes, and infrastructure involved in the production, processing, distribution, and consumption of food.

Aquaculture: The farming of aquatic organisms

Passage -2 Forest management in Pennsylvania, USA

Forest management: The practice of planning and controlling the use and development of forests to achieve specific goals, such as sustainability, timber production, or wildlife habitat preservation. Example: Effective forest management strategies can help maintain a healthy ecosystem while meeting the needs of human populations.
Low-quality wood: Wood that is considered to have inferior characteristics or is not suitable for high-value uses such as timber production. Example: The landowner decided to utilize the low-quality wood for biomass energy production instead of selling it for construction purposes.
Low-use wood: Wood that has limited economic value in traditional timber markets and is often left behind during selective harvesting. Example: The forest was filled with low-use wood, comprising poorly formed trees that were not suitable for commercial purposes.
Bioenergy: Renewable energy derived from biological sources, such as wood, crops, or organic waste. Example: The use of bioenergy can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels.
Sustainable forest management: The practice of managing forests in a way that balances environmental, economic, and social benefits to meet present and future needs. Example: Sustainable forest management aims to ensure the long-term health and productivity of forests while conserving biodiversity.
Species: A distinct type or category of plants or animals that share common characteristics. Example: The forest is home to a diverse range of tree species, including oak, maple, and pine.
Size: The physical dimensions or magnitude of something, often referring to the height, diameter, or volume of trees. Example: The old-growth forest boasted towering trees, with some reaching impressive sizes of over 200 feet.
Form: The shape, structure, or appearance of something, such as the growth habit of a tree. Example: The bonsai tree had an exquisite form, carefully cultivated over years of meticulous pruning.
Condition: The state or health of something, particularly regarding the well-being of trees in this context. Example: The arborist assessed the condition of the trees, identifying signs of disease or stress.
Quality: The inherent characteristics or properties that determine the value or usefulness of something. Example: The timber harvested from old-growth forests is renowned for its exceptional quality and durability.
Function: The purpose, role, or intended use of something within a particular context. Example: In a forest ecosystem, decomposing fallen logs serve the important function of providing habitat for various organisms.
Accessibility: The ease of reaching or accessing something, often referring to the availability of timber resources in this context. Example: The remote location of the forest made it challenging for logging companies to establish access roads.
Management goals: Objectives or targets set by landowners or forest managers to guide the decision-making and actions related to forest management. Example: The management goals for the forest included promoting biodiversity, improving timber yields, and enhancing recreational opportunities.
High value: Significantly valuable or prized due to desirable characteristics, such as high-quality timber or ecological benefits. Example: The ancient redwood trees in the national park held high value not only for their majestic beauty but also for their ecological significance.
Timber: Wood that is suitable for commercial use, typically for construction, furniture, or other industrial purposes. Example: The logging operation focused on harvesting timber from sustainably managed forests.
Landowner: A person or entity that owns land, including forested areas. Example: The landowner implemented sustainable practices to ensure the long-term health and productivity of the forest.
Wildlife habitat: The natural environment or specific area that provides suitable living conditions and resources for wildlife species. Example: The conservation organization worked to protect and restore critical wildlife habitats in the region.
Black knot disease: A fungal disease that affects certain tree species, characterized by the formation of black, rough growths or galls on branches and stems. Example: The cherry orchard suffered from an outbreak of black knot disease, necessitating the removal of infected trees to prevent its spread.
Woodworker: A person skilled in working with wood, often involved in crafting furniture, cabinetry, or artistic pieces. Example: The woodworker meticulously carved intricate designs into the wooden sculpture, showcasing their craftsmanship.
Biofuel: Fuel derived from organic matter, such as plant biomass or agricultural waste, used as a renewable energy source. Example: The biofuel produced from agricultural residues helped reduce greenhouse gas emissions and reliance on fossil fuels.
Combustion: The process of burning a substance, often used to generate heat or produce energy. Example: The biomass power plant utilized combustion to convert wood chips into electricity.
Gasification: The conversion of organic materials into a gas, such as synthetic natural gas (SNG), for use in various applications, including energy production. Example: The company invested in advanced gasification technology to transform low-use wood into a clean and versatile energy source.
Ethanol: A type of alcohol produced from biomass, commonly used as a fuel additive or alternative to gasoline. Example: The ethanol production plant processed corn and other agricultural residues to produce bioethanol for the transportation sector.
Lorries: British English term for trucks or large vehicles used for transportation of goods. Example: The logging company relied on lorries to transport harvested timber from the forest to the sawmill.
Salvage Cut: A logging or harvesting method that focuses on removing trees affected by pests, diseases, or other factors to salvage usable wood and prevent further spread of the problem. Example: After an outbreak of pine beetles, a salvage cut was conducted to remove infested trees and minimize the impact on neighboring forests.
Pests and pathogens: Organisms or agents that cause harm or damage to trees and forests, such as insects, fungi, or diseases. Example: The forest underwent extensive monitoring to identify and manage pests and pathogens threatening the health of the trees.
Timber Stand Improvement (TSI) Cut: A forest management practice that involves removing poor-quality trees and vegetation to enhance the growth and development of high-value tree species. Example: The TSI cut aimed to thin out undesirable species and create favorable conditions for the growth of valuable timber trees.
Invasive plants: Non-native plant species that rapidly spread and outcompete native vegetation, often causing ecological imbalances. Example: The conservation team conducted regular surveys to detect and control invasive plants invading the forest ecosystem.
Regeneration: The process of renewing or reestablishing a forest or stand of trees through natural or artificial means, usually after harvesting or disturbances. Example: Following the clear-cutting operation, efforts were made to facilitate the natural regeneration of the forest through seed dispersal and site preparation.
Vigorous trees: Healthy and robust trees that exhibit vigorous growth and are better equipped to withstand pests, diseases, and environmental stressors. Example: The forest management strategy prioritized the retention of vigorous trees with the potential to maintain a healthy and resilient ecosystem.
Outbreak: A sudden and widespread occurrence of a particular problem or phenomenon, often referring to the rapid spread of pests, diseases, or invasive species. Example: The outbreak of Dutch elm disease devastated the population of elm trees in the region.
Shelterwood Cut: A silvicultural practice where mature trees are selectively removed from a forest to create a favorable environment for the regeneration of desired tree species. Example: The shelterwood cut was implemented to encourage the growth of young oak trees and promote a diverse forest structure.
Silviculture: The art and science of cultivating and managing forests, including practices related to tree growth, establishment, and regeneration. Example: The forestry students studied various silvicultural techniques to understand how to best manage forest ecosystems.
Thinnings: The selective removal of trees or vegetation from a stand to reduce density, improve growth conditions, and enhance the health and quality of the remaining trees. Example: Thinnings were carried out in the overcrowded forest to allow more sunlight and resources to reach the dominant trees.
Dense and dead wood removal: The process of eliminating excessive accumulations of dense vegetation or dead wood, which can increase the risk of forest fires. Example: The forest management plan included regular removal of dense and dead wood to minimize the fire hazard and promote forest health.
Fire prevention: Activities or measures undertaken to reduce the likelihood and severity of wildfires, such as fuel management, prescribed burning, and firebreak construction. Example: The fire prevention strategy focused on clearing combustible materials and creating fire-resistant zones around vulnerable forest areas.
Retention: The deliberate decision to preserve or retain certain elements, such as low-use wood, tree cavities, or rare species, for their ecological value or specific functions. Example: The retention of tree cavities provided essential nesting sites for woodpeckers and contributed to the biodiversity of the forest.
Nutrient cycling: The process by which nutrients are taken up by plants, incorporated into organic matter, released through decomposition, and reused within an ecosystem. Example: Fallen leaves on the forest floor contribute to nutrient cycling as they decompose and release valuable nutrients back into the soil.
Cavities: Hollow spaces or holes within tree trunks or branches that serve as important habitats for various wildlife, including birds and mammals. Example: The old oak tree had several cavities, attracting a diverse array of wildlife, including owls and squirrels.
Structural diversity: The presence of a variety of different tree species, age classes, sizes, and spatial arrangements within a forest, enhancing ecological resilience and habitat complexity. Example: The forest with high structural diversity supported a wide range of wildlife species and exhibited greater resistance to disturbances.

READING PASSAGE 3

Conquering Earth’s space junk problem

 Satellites: Human-made objects orbiting the Earth. Example: The communication satellites facilitate global connectivity.

 Rocket shards: Fragments of rockets. Example: The collision resulted in numerous rocket shards spreading in orbit.

 Collision debris: Remnants from space collisions. Example: The collision debris poses a threat to other satellites.

 Orbit: The path an object takes around another celestial body. Example: The satellite is in a stable orbit around the Earth.

 Traffic risks: Dangers associated with the increasing number of objects in space. Example: Traffic risks in orbit demand effective space management.

 Researchers: Individuals studying and investigating a specific subject. Example: The researchers are exploring ways to reduce space debris.

 Reduce: To decrease or minimize. Example: Efforts are being made to reduce the risks of collisions in space.

 Threats: Potential dangers or risks. Example: Space agencies are addressing threats to satellite operations.

 Commercial companies: Businesses engaged in buying and selling products or services. Example: Commercial companies are investing in space exploration.

 Military: Relating to the armed forces or defense. Example: The military's satellite technology has advanced significantly.

 Civil departments: Government organizations not related to the military. Example: Civil departments contribute to space research and management.

 Amateurs: Non-professionals or enthusiasts. Example: Amateur astronomers contribute valuable observations.

 Deploy: To send or position. Example: Space companies plan to deploy large constellations of satellites.

 Constellations: Groups of satellites or stars. Example: The night sky is filled with celestial constellations.

 Sharply: Abruptly or significantly. Example: The number of satellites sent into orbit rose sharply last year.

 Iridium satellite: A type of commercial satellite network. Example: The Iridium satellite network provides global communication.

 Inactive: Not active or in use. Example: The inactive satellite posed a collision risk.

 Russian communications satellite: A satellite operated by Russia for communication purposes. Example: The Russian communications satellite was part of a previous mission.

 Shrapnel: Fragments or debris from an explosion. Example: The collision created dangerous space shrapnel.

 Low Earth orbit: The region of space closer to Earth, up to 2,000 kilometers in altitude. Example: Many satellites operate in low Earth orbit for better communication.

 Altogether: In total or overall. Example: Altogether, there are 20,000 human-made objects in orbit.

 Human-made: Created or manufactured by humans. Example: Space debris includes human-made objects.

 Operators: Individuals or organizations controlling satellites. Example: Satellite operators monitor and control spacecraft.

 Steer away: To change the course or direction. Example: Operators try to steer away from potential collisions.

 Consumes: Uses up or depletes. Example: Each move consumes time and fuel.

 Manoeuvres: Planned movements or actions. Example: Spacecraft perform manoeuvres to avoid collisions.

 Assessing: Evaluating or analyzing. Example: Methods for assessing objects in orbit are being improved.

 Efficiently: In a way that maximizes productivity. Example: Efficient space management is crucial to avoid collisions.

 Crowded: Full of objects or people in a confined space. Example: Space is becoming increasingly crowded with satellites.

 Data set: A collection of data. Example: Researchers are compiling a massive data set on space objects.

 Taxonomies: Classification systems or categorizations. Example: Taxonomies of space debris help assess potential threats.

 Properties: Characteristics or qualities. Example: Measuring the properties of space debris is essential.

 Shape and size: The physical dimensions and form of an object. Example: Understanding the shape and size of debris is crucial.

 Unthinkable: Beyond consideration or imagination. Example: The idea of a space catastrophe is unthinkable.

 Uncontrolled: Not regulated or managed. Example: Uncontrolled space crashes can lead to disaster.

 Cascade: A sequence of events with a domino effect. Example: A cascade of fragments could render space unusable.

 Runaway: Out of control or uncontrollable. Example: A runaway cascade of debris is a serious concern.

 Rendering: Making or causing something to be in a particular state. Example: Collision debris is rendering space more hazardous.

 Astrodynamical researcher: Scientist studying the dynamics of celestial bodies. Example: Astrodynamical researchers analyze the movement of satellites.

 Space sustainability: Practices to ensure the long-term usability of space. Example: Guidelines on space sustainability aim to reduce debris.

 Inactivating: Disabling or shutting down. Example: Inactivating satellites at the end of their life is essential.

 Venting: Releasing or expelling gases or materials. Example: Venting pressurized materials is a common practice.

 Explosions: Violent bursts of energy or force. Example: Leftover fuel can lead to explosions in space.

 Lowering: Bringing something down to a lower position. Example: Lowering satellites into the atmosphere helps prevent debris.

 Intergovernmental groups: Organizations involving multiple governments. Example: The Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee is intergovernmental.

 Guidelines: Recommendations or instructions. Example: Guidelines on space sustainability promote responsible practices.

 Abided by: Followed or adhered to. Example: Not all missions have abided by the 25-year goal.

 Stewards: Caretakers or guardians. Example: Satellite operators should be responsible stewards of space.

 Enterprises: Projects or undertakings. Example: Large constellations of satellites are ambitious enterprises.

 Devolving: Deteriorating or declining. Example: Without effective measures, the space community may devolve into chaos.

Cambridge Academic IELTS 18

Test-2

READING PASSAGE 1

Stonehenge

1. Prehistoric: Relating to the time before recorded history. Example: Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument with ancient origins.

2. Monument: A structure or building with historical, cultural, or religious significance. Example: Stonehenge is a mysterious prehistoric monument.

3. Erect: To construct or build. Example: Stonehenge took an estimated 1,500 years to be erected.

4. Salisbury Plain: A flat region in southern England where Stonehenge is located. Example: Stonehenge stands on Salisbury Plain, surrounded by green landscapes.

5. Primitive: Basic, simple, or ancient. Example: Neolithic Britons used primitive tools for early construction.

6. Deer antlers: The branched horns of a deer. Example: Neolithic Britons may have used deer antlers as tools.

7. Ditch and bank (henge): A circular excavation and the raised earth from it. Example: Stonehenge features a massive circular ditch and bank.

8. Neolithic: Relating to the later part of the Stone Age. Example: Stonehenge was constructed during the Neolithic period.

9. Timber posts: Wooden pillars or columns. Example: Deep pits within Stonehenge may have held a ring of timber posts.

10. Bluestones: Specific stones, mainly blue in color, used in the construction of Stonehenge. Example: Stonehenge's bluestones were transported from the Preseli Hills.

11. Preseli Hills: Hills in Wales from where the bluestones were sourced. Example: The bluestones were traced to the Preseli Hills, 300 kilometers away.

12. Hoisted: Lifted or raised. Example: Builders hoisted the bluestones into standing positions.

13. Horseshoe or circular formation: Arrangement of stones in the shape of a horseshoe or circle. Example: The bluestones were placed in a horseshoe or circular formation.

14. Sledges and rollers: Sled-like devices and cylindrical objects used for transport. Example: Builders may have used sledges and rollers to move the bluestones.

15. Rafts: Floating platforms used for transporting heavy objects. Example: Bluestones may have been transferred onto rafts for transportation.

16. Oxen: Domesticated cattle used for pulling heavy loads. Example: Archaeologists suggest that oxen may have towed the stones.

17. Archaeologists: Scientists studying human history through artifacts and structures. Example: Archaeologists have been researching Stonehenge for centuries.

18. Geologists: Scientists studying the Earth's structure, composition, and processes. Example: Geologists have contributed to the debate on Stonehenge's origins.

19. Glaciers: Massive bodies of ice that move slowly over land. Example: Some scientists suggest glaciers transported the bluestones to Stonehenge.

20. Sceptical: Doubtful or hesitant. Example: Most archaeologists remain sceptical about the glacier theory.

21. Sandstone slabs (sarsens): Blocks of sandstone used in Stonehenge's third phase. Example: Sandstone slabs were arranged into an outer crescent or ring.

22. Trilithons: Iconic three-piece stone structures at the center of Stonehenge. Example: Stonehenge features impressive trilithons made of sandstone.

23. Radiocarbon dating: A method to determine the age of organic materials using carbon isotopes. Example: Radiocarbon dating revealed the timeline of Stonehenge's construction.

24. Agrarians: People engaged in agriculture or farming. Example: Neolithic agrarians likely contributed to the initial stage of Stonehenge.

25. Indigenous: Native to a particular region. Example: Neolithic agrarians were likely indigenous to the British Isles.

26. Artefacts: Objects made by humans, typically of cultural or historical interest. Example: Bones, tools, and other artefacts were found at the Stonehenge site.

27. Tribes: Groups of people sharing a common ancestry or culture. Example: Distinct tribes may have contributed to different phases of Stonehenge.

28. Communal: Involving or shared by a community. Example: Groups with a communal way of life left their mark on Stonehenge.

29. Immigrants: People who move to a new country or region. Example: Some believe that tribes with advanced tools were immigrants from Europe.

30. Dense cloud cover: Thick clouds obstructing the view of the sky. Example: Critics argue that England's dense cloud cover would hinder astronomical observations.

31. Astronomer: A scientist who studies celestial bodies and phenomena. Example: Gerald Hawkins, an astronomer, proposed a calendar theory for Stonehenge.

32. Megalithic stones: Large stones used in the construction of monuments. Example: Stonehenge is known for its cluster of megalithic stones.

33. Astrological phenomena: Celestial events like solstices, equinoxes, and eclipses. Example: Gerald Hawkins suggested Stonehenge corresponded to astrological phenomena.

34. Summer solstice: The point in time when the sun is at its highest position in the sky. Example: Modern druids gather at Stonehenge for the summer solstice.

35. Speculate: To make educated guesses or theories. Example: British archaeologists speculated that Stonehenge was a place of healing.

36. Curative powers: Healing or therapeutic properties. Example: Bluestones at Stonehenge were thought to have curative powers.

37. Shadowy: Unclear or mysterious. Example: The facts surrounding Stonehenge's builders remain shadowy.

38. Consensus: General agreement or opinion. Example: There is a consensus that Stonehenge served as a burial ground.

39. Calendar: A system of organizing and measuring time. Example: Gerald Hawkins proposed Stonehenge as a megalithic calendar.

40. Equinoxes: Times of the year when day and night are approximately equal in length. Example: Stonehenge may have marked the equinoxes in its design.

41. Eclipses: Phenomena where one celestial body obscures another. Example: Some believe Stonehenge was aligned with eclipses.

42. Healing: The process of making or becoming healthy. Example: Signs of illness led to speculation about Stonehenge's healing purpose.

43. Unearthed: Discovered or brought to the surface. Example: William Stukeley unearthed primitive graves at the Stonehenge site.

44. Primitive graves: Burial sites from an early or ancient period. Example: William Stukeley found primitive graves near Stonehenge.

45. Druids: Members of an ancient Celtic religious order. Example: Druids were initially thought to be the builders of Stonehenge.

46. Antiquarian: A person interested in or studying ancient artifacts. Example: William Stukeley was an antiquarian who studied Stonehenge.

47. Celts: A group of Indo-European peoples in ancient Europe. Example: Druids were believed to be part of Celtic society.

48. Summer solstice: The longest day of the year when the sun is at its highest point. Example: Druids gather at Stonehenge for the summer solstice celebration.

49. Distinct: Separate or different. Example: Modern historians agree that distinct tribes contributed to Stonehenge.

50. Shadowy: Unclear or mysterious. Example: The purpose of Stonehenge remains shadowy, despite various theories.

READING PASSAGE 2

Living with artificial intelligence

1. Artificial Intelligence (AI): The simulation of human intelligence in machines. Example: The rapid advancements in artificial intelligence have transformed various industries.

2. Align: To bring into a line or proper position. Example: It is crucial to align AI with human values for ethical use.

3. Police: To regulate or control. Example: The question arises whether AI will have to police human values.

4. Decade: A period of ten years. Example: The past decade has witnessed significant advancements in AI.

5. Astonishing: Extremely surprising or impressive. Example: The chess-playing AI's ability to defeat all human players was astonishing.

6. Feat: An achievement or remarkable act. Example: Building a chess-playing AI in just four hours is a remarkable feat.

7. Narrow AI: Artificial intelligence designed for specific tasks. Example: Current AI achievements are in the realm of narrow AI, focused on specific abilities.

8. Artificial General Intelligence (AGI): Machines with human-level performance across various tasks. Example: AGI is considered the next step, where AI matches human capabilities in diverse domains.

9. Physical constraints: Limitations imposed by the physical nature of something. Example: Machines, unlike humans, are free of many physical constraints on intelligence.

10. Biochemical: Related to the chemical processes within living organisms. Example: The human brain operates at slow biochemical processing speeds.

11. Dimensions: Measurements or extent in a particular direction. Example: Human brain size is restricted by the dimensions of the birth canal.

12. Handicaps: Disadvantages or limitations. Example: Despite handicaps, the human brain accomplishes remarkable tasks.

13. Accelerate: To increase the speed or progress of something. Example: Progress towards AI limits could accelerate with machines designing smarter machines.

14. Utopian: Idealistic or visionary, often suggesting an impractical perfection. Example: The vision of ethically superhuman machines is somewhat utopian.

15. Folklore: Traditional beliefs, customs, and stories passed down orally. Example: Folklore often contains cautionary tales about unintended consequences.

16. Prodigious: Impressively great in size or extent. Example: The prodigious accomplishments of AI have amazed the scientific community.

17. Specify: To state or describe in detail. Example: It is crucial to specify the goals of AI machines with great care.

18. Ethically: In a manner consistent with moral principles. Example: Machines should behave ethically, aligning with human values.

19. Cognitively superhuman: Exhibiting intelligence beyond human capabilities. Example: For safety, machines should be both cognitively and ethically superhuman.

20. Autonomy: The ability to make independent decisions or actions. Example: Sacrificing autonomy to moral guides may impact human freedom.

21. Moral high ground: The morally superior or ethically sound position. Example: AI machines should aim for the moral high ground in decision-making.

22. Discriminate: To treat a person or group unfairly based on prejudice. Example: Machines discouraging discrimination might limit human freedom.

23. Lapses: Instances of errors or mistakes. Example: Ethically superhuman machines could discourage ethical lapses in human behavior.

24. Silicon police: Metaphorical reference to AI enforcing ethical standards. Example: The idea of silicon police raises concerns about limitations on human behavior.

25. National Health Service (NHS): The publicly funded healthcare system in the UK. Example: AI already plays a role in resource allocation in the National Health Service.

26. Efficiently: In a manner that maximizes productivity and effectiveness. Example: AI might manage healthcare resources more efficiently than humans.

27. Taxpayers: Individuals contributing to government funds through taxes. Example: AI acting in the interests of taxpayers requires well-defined goals.

28. Cooperative spirit: Willingness to work together for a common goal. Example: Achieving safe AI requires a cooperative spirit among researchers and developers.

29. General Intelligence: The ability to understand, learn, and apply knowledge across various domains. Example: General intelligence in machines involves versatile problem-solving capabilities.

30. Morally reasoning: Engaging in ethical or moral decision-making processes. Example: AI with general intelligence must also possess morally reasoning capabilities.

31. Autonomy: The right or condition of self-governance. Example: Surrendering autonomy to machines raises questions about human freedom.

32. Signs of progress: Indications of positive advancements or developments. Example: Denying certain freedoms, like child labor, is considered a sign of progress.

33. Ethical silicon police: Symbolic reference to AI enforcing ethical standards. Example: Ethical silicon police might guide human behavior towards morally sound choices.

34. Lapses: Instances of errors or mistakes. Example: Ethically superhuman machines could discourage ethical lapses in human behavior.

35. Far-fetched: Unlikely or improbable. Example: The idea of AI influencing ethical choices might seem far-fetched to some.

36. Resource allocation: The process of distributing and managing resources efficiently. Example: AI's role in NHS resource allocation involves optimizing healthcare services.

37. Senior doctors: Experienced and highly qualified medical professionals. Example: AI may challenge the control that senior doctors currently have in healthcare decisions.

38. Tribal creatures: Humans characterized by a strong sense of group identity. Example: The 'getting started' problem arises from our tribal nature and conflicting ideals.

39. Conflict: A struggle or disagreement. Example: Humans are often conflicted about their own ideals and moral principles.

40. Utopian vision: An idealistic and perfect future scenario. Example: Achieving ethical AI might seem like a utopian vision, given current challenges.

41. Ideal: Conforming to a standard of perfection or excellence. Example: A cooperative spirit is an ideal prerequisite for ensuring safe AI.

42. Fallible natures: Prone to making mistakes or errors. Example: AI amplifying the dark sides of human fallible natures could pose risks.

43. Destination: The ultimate goal or outcome. Example: The ethical destination for AI involves aligning with human values.

44. Careful: Exercising caution and consideration. Example: It is crucial to be careful about the ethical implications of AI development.

45. Wish for: Desire or hope for something to happen. Example: Careful consideration is needed for what society wishes for in AI advancements.

46. Cognitive: Related to mental processes such as thinking, learning, and remembering. Example: Ethical AI requires not only cognitive but also moral capabilities.

47. Capacity: The ability or power to do something. Example: General intelligence and moral reasoning are considered uniquely human capacities.

48. Package: A combination of elements considered together. Example: The package of general intelligence and moral authority raises ethical considerations.

49. Unique: Singular or unmatched in its characteristics. Example: General intelligence and moral reasoning are often thought of as uniquely human.

50. Think about: Consider or reflect on a topic. Example: The passage encourages thinking about the potential implications of AI advancements.

READING PASSAGE 3

An ideal city

1. Genius: Exceptional intellectual or creative ability. Example: Leonardo da Vinci is universally associated with the word 'genius.'

2. Renaissance man: A person with wide-ranging talents and interests. Example: Leonardo da Vinci is considered a true Renaissance man for his expertise in science, art, and humanism.

3. Humanist: Someone who values and promotes human interests, culture, and achievements. Example: Leonardo da Vinci embodied humanist sensibilities in his work and thinking.

4. Insignificance: Lack of importance or relevance. Example: Despite five centuries passing, Leonardo's thinking has not faded into insignificance.

5. Cusp: A point of transition between two different states or conditions. Example: The world is on the cusp of a climate crisis, requiring radical solutions.

6. Crisis: A time of intense difficulty or danger. Example: The spread of the plague in the 14th century caused a global crisis.

7. Displacement: The forced movement of people from their homes. Example: The climate crisis is predicted to cause widespread displacement.

8. Extinctions: The state or process of being wiped out or extinguished. Example: The climate crisis poses a threat of extinctions to various species.

9. Unaddressed: Not dealt with or considered. Example: If left unaddressed, the climate crisis could lead to catastrophic consequences.

10. Urban planning: The design and organization of urban spaces. Example: Leonardo turned his thoughts to urban planning problems around 1486.

11. Renaissance trend: A characteristic pattern or tendency during the Renaissance period. Example: Urbanism as an academic discipline emerged as a Renaissance trend in the 15th century.

12. Ideal city project: A visionary concept of an urban environment with specific features. Example: Leonardo's 'ideal city' project aimed to revolutionize urban living.

13. Unfulfilled: Not realized or completed. Example: Leonardo's ideal city project remained unfulfilled due to excessive costs.

14. Unsustainable: Unable to be maintained or continued in the long term. Example: Unsustainable urban models contribute to global climate change.

15. Overcrowded: Too crowded with people or things. Example: Medieval cities had winding and overcrowded streets, inspiring Leonardo to rethink urban design.

16. Rigour: The strict application of rules and methods. Example: The Renaissance marked the birth of urbanism as a true academic discipline characterized by rigour.

17. Conception: The act or process of forming a plan or idea. Example: The Renaissance marked the conscious conception of cities with rigorous planning.

18. Pienza: A town in Italy that underwent reconfiguration during the Renaissance. Example: Pienza is an example of a town reconfigured during the Renaissance to embody urban planning ideals.

19. Prominent: Widely recognized and respected. Example: Prominent Renaissance men pushed forward large-scale urban projects in Italy.

20. Winding: Having a twisting or turning course. Example: Medieval cities had winding streets, prompting the need for urban redesign.

21. High, strong walls: Tall and sturdy defensive structures surrounding a city. Example: Leonardo recommended high, strong walls with towers and battlements for the ideal city.

22. Hydraulic plants: Systems for moving or controlling water. Example: Leonardo designed extensive hydraulic plants for artificial canals in his ideal city.

23. Compact: Tightly and efficiently arranged or organized. Example: Leonardo's ideal city was envisioned as a multi-level, compact modern city.

24. Technically conceived: Thought out with careful consideration of technical aspects. Example: Leonardo's ideas for the ideal city were thoroughly technically conceived.

25. Georges-Eugene Haussmann: A figure known for renovating Paris in the 19th century. Example: Haussmann's renovation of Paris applied some of Leonardo's ideas for a compact city.

26. Efficient and sustainable: Productive and capable of being maintained over time. Example: Many scholars believe that Leonardo's ideas could make modern cities more efficient and sustainable.

27. Aligned closely: In close agreement or harmony. Example: Leonardo was aligned closely with modern urban planning concepts.

28. Ahead of his time: Having ideas or innovations that are unusually advanced for the period. Example: Leonardo da Vinci was centuries ahead of his time in terms of urban planning.

29. Valid: Having sound reasoning or applicability. Example: Leonardo's ideas are not simply valid; they suggest a way forward for urban planning.

30. Integrated with nature: Designed to harmonize and coexist with the natural environment. Example: Leonardo's vision included cities integrated with nature, especially water systems.

31. Efficient transport infrastructure: Well-organized systems for moving people and goods. Example: Leonardo envisioned an ideal city with efficient transport infrastructure.

32. Compact city: A city built closely and efficiently, often vertically. Example: The compact city, a concept in line with Leonardo's vision, could enhance efficiency.

33. Way forward: A path or direction for progress or development. Example: Leonardo's ideas provide a way forward for creating more sustainable and efficient cities.

34. Modem urban planning: Contemporary approaches to organizing and designing urban spaces. Example: Leonardo was closely aligned with modern urban planning principles.

35. Sound reasoning: Logical and well-thought-out justification for an idea. Example: Many scholars consider Leonardo's ideas for a compact city to have sound reasoning.

36. Harmony: A state of peaceful coexistence or agreement. Example: The integration of cities with nature aims to achieve harmony between urban and natural environments.

37. Environment: The surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives. Example: Leonardo's ideas included designs that integrated cities with the natural environment.

38. Renovation: The action of restoring or repairing something. Example: Haussmann's renovation of Paris applied some of Leonardo's innovative ideas.

39. Compact modern city: A contemporary city design that is tightly organized and efficiently planned. Example: Leonardo's vision for a compact modern city was ahead of its time.

40. Urbanism: The study or practice of city planning and design. Example: The Renaissance marked the birth of urbanism as an academic discipline.

41. Innovative thoughts: Original and inventive ideas. Example: From Leonardo's papers, innovative thoughts about urban planning can be reconstructed.

42. Vertical outdoor staircases: Stairs connecting different levels of a building or city structure. Example: Leonardo's design included vertical outdoor staircases for easy movement between levels.

43. Unconventional: Not based on or conforming to what is generally done. Example: Leonardo's idea of multi-level cities was unconventional for his time.

44. Interior spaces: Areas within buildings. Example: Taking full advantage of interior spaces in buildings was an unconventional idea in Leonardo's time.

45. Modernist movement: A cultural and artistic movement in the 20th century that embraced innovation and progress. Example: The design concept of taking full advantage of interior spaces became prominent in the Modernist movement.

46. Access to sun: Designing streets to allow sunlight to reach ground level. Example: Leonardo suggested streets' width matching the average height of houses for access to sun.

47. Earthquakes: Sudden shaking of the ground, often causing damage. Example: Leonardo's design aimed to reduce the risk of damage from earthquakes in cities.

48. Multi-level: Having multiple layers or levels. Example: Leonardo wanted his ideal city to be built on several levels, each serving different purposes.

49. Subdivision: Division into smaller and distinct parts. Example: The subdivision of the city by function was an innovative idea in Leonardo's urban planning.

50. Compact city: A city design that minimizes sprawl by building upwards rather than outwards. Example: The concept of a compact city, advocated by Leonardo, aligns with modern sustainability goals.

Test-3

READING PASSAGE 1

Materials to take us beyond concrete

1. Greenhouse gas emissions: Gases, such as carbon dioxide, that contribute to the greenhouse effect and climate change. Example: Concrete production is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions.

2. Carbon emissions: The release of carbon, particularly carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere. Example: If concrete remains the primary construction material, carbon emissions will continue to rise.

3. Innovating: Introducing new methods or ideas to create something novel or improved. Example: Scientists are innovating with alternative materials to reduce carbon emissions from construction.

4. Universal commodity: A widely used and standardized product or material. Example: Concrete has been a universal commodity that underpinned modern life.

5. Scale of manufacture: The extent or volume of production, often on a large scale. Example: The scale of concrete manufacture contributes to its high carbon footprint.

6. Mouldable: Capable of being shaped or formed. Example: Portland cement, a mouldable material, is a key component of concrete.

7. Pourable: Able to be poured or easily flowed into a desired shape. Example: Concrete, with its pourable quality, is widely used in construction.

8. Thermal expansion properties: Characteristics related to how a material expands or contracts with changes in temperature. Example: Concrete and steel have similar thermal expansion properties, making them suitable for reinforcement.

9. Flexibility: The ability to bend or adapt without breaking. Example: The use of steel reinforcement in concrete enhances its flexibility as a building material.

10. Climate change: Long-term changes in the Earth's climate, often attributed to human activities. Example: Climate change is driving architects to explore alternative building materials like treated timber.

11. Treated timber: Wood that has undergone processes to enhance its properties and durability. Example: Treated timber is being considered as a resource for building in response to climate change.

12. Cross-laminated timber: Engineered wood made by layering solid-sawn timber with adhesive to create building blocks. Example: Cross-laminated timber combines the strength of concrete and steel but is lighter.

13. Construction experts: Professionals with expertise in building and construction. Example: Construction experts claim that wooden buildings can be built faster than concrete and steel structures.

14. Global demand: The overall need for a product or resource on a worldwide scale. Example: Stora Enso is experiencing increasing global demand for cross-laminated timber.

15. Carbon sequestration: The process of capturing and storing carbon to prevent its release into the atmosphere. Example: Timber in buildings contributes to carbon sequestration by locking away carbon absorbed during growth.

16. Fly ash: Residue from coal-burning power plants, used as a potential alternative to cement in concrete. Example: Fly ash can replace a portion of cement in concrete mixes, reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

17. Slag from iron ore: Byproduct of the iron ore smelting process, considered as an alternative to cement in concrete. Example: Iron-ore slag can be incorporated into concrete mixes to lower carbon emissions.

18. Life cycle of the building: The stages a building goes through, from construction to demolition, considering environmental impacts. Example: When using alternative materials, the entire life cycle of the building must be considered for a holistic view of carbon impact.

19. Fossil fuels: Non-renewable energy sources, such as coal and oil, derived from ancient organic remains. Example: If alternative materials are transported long distances using fossil fuels, their overall carbon impact may not be reduced.

20. Raw-material shortages: Insufficient availability of essential materials for production. Example: Some alternative cements face raw-material shortages, hindering their widespread use.

21. Resistance from customers: Unwillingness or opposition from consumers to adopt new products or materials. Example: Some novel cements face resistance from customers due to factors like cost-effectiveness.

22. Cost-effective: Economical and efficient in terms of cost and benefits. Example: At present, many alternative cements are not as cost-effective as conventional cement.

23. Overview of innovation: A comprehensive examination or summary of new and inventive developments. Example: The overview of innovation in the concrete industry assesses the feasibility of alternative cements.

24. Royal Institute of International Affairs: A prestigious institution providing insights and research on international affairs. Example: Researchers at the Royal Institute of International Affairs conclude that some alternative cements face challenges in terms of cost-effectiveness.

25. Breaking through: Achieving success or acceptance, especially in the context of overcoming challenges. Example: Despite being discussed for over a decade, some novel cements have not broken through in the construction industry.

26. Abundant: Existing in large quantities or readily available. Example: Alternative materials may face challenges if they are not abundant and readily accessible.

27. Unproven: Not yet demonstrated or tested in practical applications. Example: Some technologies for alternative cements are still unproven and require further validation.

28. Wider range of construction projects: A diverse set of building initiatives to assess the versatility and applicability of materials. Example: Only when a wider range of construction projects is implemented can the potential of alternative materials be fully understood.

29. Modern urban planning: Contemporary approaches to organizing and designing cities. Example: Leonardo's ideas align closely with modern urban planning concepts, especially the focus on efficiency and sustainability.

30. Centuries ahead of his time: Possessing ideas or concepts that were unusually advanced for the historical period. Example: Leonardo da Vinci was centuries ahead of his time in envisioning an ideal city with innovative urban planning.

31. Renaissance ideals: Values and principles associated with the Renaissance period, emphasizing humanism, art, and intellectual pursuits. Example: Leonardo's plans for a rational city were consistent with Renaissance ideals of progress and innovation.

32. Compact city: An urban planning concept focused on creating dense, efficient, and sustainable cities. Example: Many scholars believe that the compact city model, integrating nature and efficient transport, aligns with Leonardo's vision.

33. Holistic view: Considering all aspects and perspectives to form a complete understanding. Example: A holistic view of the environmental impact involves evaluating the entire life cycle of construction materials.

34. Holistic vision: A comprehensive and integrated perspective on a particular subject or problem. Example: Leonardo da Vinci's holistic vision for an ideal city considered various elements, from transportation to architecture.

35. Innovative thoughts: Creative and novel ideas that depart from traditional approaches. Example: Leonardo's innovative thoughts on urban planning included multi-level construction and integrated water systems.

36. Ideal city project: A conceptual urban planning initiative aimed at creating an optimal city layout. Example: Leonardo's ideal city project sought to address the challenges of medieval city design and overcrowding.

37. Excessive costs: High expenses or financial burdens beyond what is reasonable. Example: Leonardo's ideal city project remained unfulfilled due to excessive costs associated with its implementation.

38. Sustainable urban models: City planning approaches that prioritize environmental and social sustainability. Example: The exploration of alternative construction materials is driven by the need for more sustainable urban models.

39. Holistic way of working: An approach that considers multiple factors and aspects in a comprehensive manner. Example: Leonardo's holistic way of working with notes and sketches made it challenging to identify a coordinated vision of his ideal city.

40. Striking monument: A remarkable or noteworthy structure. Example: Stonehenge is considered a striking monument with mysteries that puzzle historians and archaeologists.

41. Astrological phenomena: Events or occurrences related to celestial bodies and their positions. Example: Gerald Hawkins suggested that Stonehenge operated as a calendar, aligning with astrological phenomena such as solstices and eclipses.

42. Astronomer: A scientist who studies celestial bodies and phenomena in the universe. Example: Gerald Hawkins, an astronomer, proposed a theory about Stonehenge's alignment with astrological events.

READING PASSAGE 2

1. Primitive: Simple, basic, or undeveloped. Example: Primitive automobiles in the 1800s were based on steam power.

2. Evolved: Developed or gradually changed over time. Example: Steam technology evolved into miniaturized engines for early cars.

3. Miniaturized: Made smaller in size. Example: Steam engines were miniaturized for use in the first cars.

4. Inherited: Received or acquired from a predecessor. Example: Early cars inherited both weaknesses and strengths from steam technology.

5. Shuttling: Transporting or moving back and forth. Example: Machines shuttled wealthy citizens around town in the early 1900s.

6. Glory days: A period of great success or achievement. Example: The glory days of steam cars were short-lived with the advent of the Internal Combustion Engine.

7. Advent: The arrival or introduction of a notable thing or event. Example: The advent of the Internal Combustion Engine marked a shift in car technology.

8. Unpopular: Not liked or accepted by many people. Example: Gasoline cars were initially unpopular due to complex operation and difficult starters.

9. Backfired: Exploded or ignited in the wrong direction. Example: Hand-crank starters were known to break arms when the engines backfired.

10. Phased out: Gradually replaced or removed from use. Example: Steam power was phased out with the introduction of the electric starter.

11. Rekindle: Revive or bring back. Example: The Doble brothers made one last effort to rekindle steam car technology.

12. Prototype: An original model or form of a new product. Example: The Doble brothers built their first steam car prototype in their parents' basement.

13. Reconfigured: Changed or rearranged into a different configuration. Example: Parts from a wrecked steam car were reconfigured to drive their own engine.

14. Remarkable: Extraordinary or impressive. Example: The Model B's remarkable acceleration was praised by Automobile magazine.

15. Innovation: The introduction of something new or inventive. Example: The Doble brothers' innovations improved steam car technology.

16. Draw the attention: Attract notice or interest. Example: The Model B drew the attention of automobile trade magazines.

17. Internal Combustion Engine: An engine in which combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. Example: The Internal Combustion Engine replaced steam power in cars.

18. Virtually: Almost or nearly. Example: The Model B's high-pressure steam drove the engine pistons in virtual silence.

19. Silent powerplant: A quiet source of power. Example: The Model B's silent powerplant contrasted with clattering gas engines.

20. Investment: The action or process of investing money for profit. Example: Abner Doble sought investment to open the General Engineering Company.

21. In cabin: Inside the vehicle's passenger compartment. Example: The Model C featured a key-based ignition in the cabin for convenience.

22. Phased out: Gradually removed or discontinued. Example: Steam power was phased out as gasoline cars gained popularity.

23. Convenience: The state of being convenient or easily accessible. Example: The Dobles promised a steam vehicle with all the convenience of a gasoline car.

24. Virtually silent: Almost completely quiet. Example: The Model B's high-pressure steam drove the engine virtually silently.

25. Sluggish: Lacking energy or slow in movement. Example: The completed cars were complained to be sluggish and erratic.

26. Erratic: Unpredictable or irregular in pattern. Example: Some completed cars went in reverse when they should go forward.

27. Innovative: Introducing new ideas or methods. Example: The Model E featured an innovative engine design.

28. Road-tested: Subjected to testing on the road. Example: The Model E was road-tested by the Automobile Club of America.

29. Frosty morning air: Cold morning atmosphere with frost. Example: The Model E was left in the frosty morning air for testing.

30. Operating pressure: The pressure required for a system to function. Example: The boiler reached its operating pressure inside of forty seconds.

31. Evenly distributed: Spread or dispersed uniformly. Example: The Model E's weight was evenly distributed for good handling.

32. Viable: Capable of working successfully. Example: The Doble brothers made a final attempt to produce a viable steam automobile.

33. Financial success: Achieving success in monetary terms. Example: The Model E steam car never was a financial success.

34. Plagued with: Afflicted or troubled persistently. Example: The new engine design was plagued with serious glitches.

35. Tinkered endlessly: Experimented or fiddled with continuously. Example: Abner Doble tinkered endlessly with the design of the Model E.

36. Survived: Continued to exist or live through challenges. Example: Many Model E Dobles have survived and are still in good working condition.

37. Astonishingly: In a surprising or impressive manner. Example: An unmodified Model E runs clean enough to pass emissions laws, astonishingly.

38. Emissions laws: Regulations governing the release of pollutants into the atmosphere. Example: An unmodified Model E complies with emissions laws in California.

39. Pose: Present or constitute. Example: The technology poses some difficult problems.

40. Modern materials: Contemporary or advanced materials. Example: Considering modern materials, a steam car might be more efficient.

41. Rise again: Experience a revival or comeback. Example: Under current pressure to reduce emissions, the steam car may rise again.

42. Cusp: A point of transition between two different states or conditions. Example: The world is on the cusp of a climate crisis.

43. Scramble: Act or move quickly and with urgency. Example: Scientists are scrambling for alternatives to concrete.

44. Underpinned: Supported or upheld from below. Example: Concrete has underpinned modern life for many years.

45. Rigour: The quality of being thorough and accurate. Example: The Renaissance marked the birth of urbanism as a true academic discipline with rigour.

46. Conception: The way in which something is perceived or understood. Example: The conscious conception of a city was missing in Western thought until the Renaissance.

47. Reconfiguration: The process of changing or rearranging the structure. Example: Parts were reconfigured to drive an engine of their own design.

48. Compact: Closely and neatly packed together. Example: The Doble brothers designed a compact modern city along the Ticino River.

49. Infrastructure: The basic physical and organizational structures and facilities. Example: The Dobles promised a steam vehicle with simpler driving controls and a virtually silent powerplant, enhancing urban infrastructure.

50. Unthinkable: Too unlikely or undesirable to be considered a possibility. Example: Under the current pressure to improve automotive performance, the return of the steam car may not be unthinkable.

READING PASSAGE 3