THE RULES SHOULD BE FOLLOWED

PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS / Paragraph

Rule 01: Avoid using contractions or abbreviations.

(Ex. Use can not instead of can’t)

Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives. These are very common in informal speech and writing, but are considered inappropriate in academic writing.

Non-academic: I don’t think that I’m working hard. Academic: I do not think that I am working hard.

For example: can’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t, didn’t, I’ll, I’ve, I’d, won’t, etc... Note that “cannot” is one word.

Do not use abbreviations or symbols.

Spell the words out. Ex: & = and; dept. = department

Rule 02: Use third person voice or impersonal language.

(Ex. One can interpret...instead of You can interpret...)

In other words, the impersonal language should be used. Most formal writing aims to establish an air of objectivity and impartiality, an air with which the personal pronouns I, me, and my seem inconsistent. In truth, objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices, but there is something to be said for seeming as well as being objective. Moreover, some professors prohibit their students from using first-person pronouns as a kind of discipline: many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions where persuasiveness demands objective evidence, and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this tendency.

The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author. The reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work "objectively", as the work of a dispassionate and disinterested (that is, unbiased) researcher. So, one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the first person pronoun "I". This can be difficult, as lecturers often say, "tell me what you think". Well, they do want to know what you think, but presented as a rational, objective argument. For this reason we also avoid using emotive language; instead we let the "facts" - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us.

It is important to note that while the avoidance of "I" has long been part of the academic tradition, these days some academics consider its use to be acceptable. So, you may encounter different views about the use of "I" over the course of your degree. In any case, you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the "personal element". Your lecturer, Cathi Lewis, for example, has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the use of "I" in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturer's Advice section of this tutorial). Regardless of your particular lecturer's views, you will need to learn how to use "I" sparingly. So let's look at how we can write passages without reference to the first person pronoun.

Avoid personal "I", "you", and "we", except for the thesis statement. So, instead of: "As I mentioned above...", write" "As was mentioned above..." except for the thesis statement. So, instead of: "As I mentioned above...", write" "As was mentioned above..."

There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun "I":

One way is to let the assignment "speak for itself": for example, "I show..." becomes "The report shows..."

"I interpret the results as..." becomes "The results indicate..."

Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction:

- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than a real individual. Consider the following sentence:

You eat peas with a fork, not with a knife.

- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another. The meaning of the sentence is actually something like, "Peas should be eaten with a fork, not with a knife." This you is a fictional character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one, and who is standing in for a whole class of persons.

- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal writing. Since your reader, too, is you, the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the reader's space for the maintenance of an impersonal air.

Rule 03: Be sure to use transitions between points, within a paragraph.

Use appropriate linking words/phrases to show the links between paragraph, as well as to link sentences within paragraphs. Do not use simple linking words (e.g. and, but, so) except for variety.

Conjunctions: avoid weak conjunctions such as "but." This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a

sentence. Look in the thesaurus for others, such as "however," "moreover," "nevertheless," "nonetheless," "regardless," etc. Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with "And", “Or”, and "Because," you should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly.

- Coordinating Conjunctions (and, but, or, yet, so):

Put a comma before these conjunctions. (Don't use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing.) example: The movie has already started, but my friend has not arrived yet.

- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts: either . . . or):

* Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences). example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher, but he is also a gourmet cook.

* You don't need a comma if it only connects words or phrases.

example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook.

- Transitional Words and Phrases:

* Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence. example: I like to travel. Specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.

* Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences.

example: I like to travel; specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.

* Use a comma before and after the transitional word/phrase in the middle of a clause. example: I like to travel, and, specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.

Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases

Rule 04: Use present tense

In writing about literature the present tense must be used.

Ex: The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away. NOT: The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away.

q DO: When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley, he feels pain in his stomach.

q DON’T: When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man, he felt pain in his stomach.

In English, the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events, and those that are usually true. It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly, or that something is true in general. As shown in the following examples:

- I take my breakfast every morning at 7 o’clock.

- Nurses look after patients in hospitals.

Moreover, it is used to express facts. For example, the planets go round the sun. In the present simple, the verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns: I, you, they, and we. However, in the third person singular (he, she, and it), the verb ends with “s” or “es”, as in the following examples:

- I usually go away at weekends.

- Sarah catches the early train.

More precisely, in academic writing, the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and predominantly used. For example, in linguistics essays, it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which is always true.

- A child acquires language during the critical period.

- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate.

- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies.

Tense-shifting: ─ NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays. Although the past tense is acceptable, (as long as there is no switching to other tenses), try to always use the present tense. Even though the novel/short story/play/poem, etc. obviously has been written in the "past," writing/discussion of texts should be in present tense.

Rule 05: Avoid using colloquialisms (slang).

For example: kids, dude, gal, guy, homies, etc...

Don't use slang. This is the time to show off the best English you know. Find the correct way to express your thoughts and convey your ideas, without resorting to slang. Be aware that certain expressions, such as "kids" instead of "children" and "guys" or "gals" instead of "men" or "women", also fall into the category of slang and should be avoided.

Rule 06: Use gender neutral language (replace he, she with they, the character, or by name)

Although in the past it was acceptable to use "he" when referring to both men and women, it is no longer acceptable to do so now. Why? Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way people think and act. If pronouns are always "he," and certain professions are always fireman, policeman, chairman, congressmen, etc, then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun use -- will fill those positions, and that women will feel that they do not belong in them. Avoiding sexist pronouns will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles.

Even if you disagree with the above theory, using "he" only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated in MLA style. You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use "they" or "their" when referring back to that subject. Or you can choose "he or she," but if you need to write "he or she" more than twice in the sentence, you might give your reader a headache. Try to avoid "s/he" or "he/she" simply because it is unsightly. Really the best solution is pluralization. (When implementing the plural solution, remember the principle of agreement.  "Everyone needs their umbrella" is not grammatical, because "everyone" is a singular subject.)

o   Sexist: If a medical student wants to succeed, he has to learn to budget his time wisely.

o   Liberated: If medical students want to succeed, they have to learn to budget his time wisely.

o   Sexist: If one wants to become a DJ, he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow.

o   Liberated: If one wants to become a DJ, he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow.

o   Sexist: A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience.

o   Liberated: Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience.

Use non-sexist language: Avoid the word "man" and "he/his/him" when referring to general phenomena. When writing sentences, there are two ways to do this:

A) Make it plural.

B)    If necessary, use ONE, HE/SHE.

C)    Also, see this table:

Rule 07: Avoid repetition.

Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently.

Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated. For example, in this section, the phrase “lexical cohesion” is repeated more than twice. In addition, repetition helps to reinforce key ideas and new terms. However, the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text which sounds monotonous, i.e., it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions. This problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence.

Use rich vocabulary: You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know. Stay away from over-used adjectives such as "good" or "bad". Instead, use more dramatic, expressive words, such as excellent, wonderful, superb, or adverse, horrible, terrible, etc. Choose the more precise word over the more general one. This will make your language come alive, in speech or in writing, and earn you higher marks.

Rule 08: Avoid using imperative language.

Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper, because it comes across as rude (as do many of the sentences in what you are reading right now!). E.g. do not say "Recall that ...". Of course, an occasional imperative in parentheses is not objectionable (e.g. "(see Walker 1996 for more details).").

Rule 09: Be sure to use but and however correctly

(See examples of correct usage below)

- I do not like homework, but I understand it’s important.

- I wish I studied more; however, I still did well on the test

- I am sick today and will miss the test, however, this will give me more time to study.

"But" and "however" are not interchangeable

The words "but" and "however" have similar meanings, but they are not interchangeable. If you take a grammatically correct sentence containing "but" and replace it with "however", or vice versa, the result will almost always be incorrect, mainly because of comma punctuation.

Correct examples:

"I like oranges, but I do not like tangerines." "I like oranges. However, I do not like tangerines." "I like oranges; however, I do not like tangerines." "I, however, do not like grapefruits."

"I like oranges however they have been prepared."

If you exchange any of these "but"s and "however"s, then the sentences would become incorrect, and in some cases meaningless.

Rule 10: Avoid using ‘it’ and ‘this’ at the start of a sentence.

If necessary, however, join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon. See examples below. Use 'It' as a subject; e.g. 'It is impossible to...'

Incorrect: I love the snow. It is fun to play in.

Correct: I love the snow; it is fun to play in.

(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)

Notes: It is aceptable to use ‘it’ as a preparatory subject. (See more at Rule 28)

It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases:

1.   It goes without saying that .../ Of course, ...

2.   It is quite clear that .../ Obviously, ...

3.   It is worth pointing out that .../ Another point is ...

4.   It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that .../ In my opinion, ...

5.   It is often argued that .../ People say that ...

6.   It is sometimes suggested that/ People say that ...

7.   It is particularly significant that ... / Importantly, ...

8.   It could be argued that ...? Perhaps,....

9.   It is likely that .../ Probably, ....

Rule 11: Avoid very strong language

E.g. I know. I am sure...

Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly

In addition to a formal voice, you should also maintain a cool-headed, objective tone. Tone usually becomes an issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion, for example, or cultural values. Even when you strongly disagree with an idea, avoid getting "emotional" in your expression. Avoid seeming angry, or condescending, or rude. Keep your calm and remain scholarly, and try to portray yourself as one who is objectively assessing the situation.

·        Emotional: We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage. For the sake of equality, the rights of liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential!!! Don't let conservatives take over your government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone. This is only going to lead to dozens of more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats!

·        Objective: Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws. The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individual's freedom was vitally important, and that as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society, the actions should not be decriminalized.

Rule 12: Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences.

E.g. Many people think so. They are wrong.

Rule 13: You should NOT:

- use brackets and dashes to add information

- use exclamation marks (!!!) in your essay

Rule 14: Avoid very emotional language

e.g. I absolutely detest people who...

Rule 15: Do not express personal opinions too strongly

e.g. I know...; instead, use milder expressions (e.g. It seems to me that... Express your opinion in a non-emotional way (e.g. It seems that, I therefore feel, etc.)

Rule 16: Do not use over-generalisation

(e.g. All politicians are...)

Avoid:

Everyone knows that...

What goes around comes around...

Rule 17: Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source. e.g. "A recent study showed..." - which study?)

Rule 18: Do not use cliches e.g. Rome was not built in a day.

Clichés are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing. They should be avoided in professional and academic writing.

Examples: Don’t count your chickens before they have hatched.

Let sleeping dogs lie.

These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech; however, in writing, they appear to be substitutes for clear thought.

We cannot build a new school at this point in time.

Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age?

The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated.

Some more examples of clichés are:

·        Raining like cats and dogs.

·        Like a pig in mud.

·        Over the hill.

·        In the dog house.

·        Back against the wall.

·        Under the gun.

·   My two cents.

·        Stubborn as a mule.

·   Bite your tongue.

·        Dyed in the wool.

·   Wrong side of the bed.

·        The calm before the storm.

·        Hair of the dog,

·        On thin ice.

·        Eye for an eye.

·        Tongue-in-cheek.

·        The third time is the charm.

Rule 19: Do not use personal examples

e.g. In my school..., One of my friend …..

Rule 20: Do not use colloquial language

Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang. Examples: - Let’s do lunch.

- I’m going to get back at him.

Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English, but it is unacceptable in formal speaking situations, and in written English.

Rule 21: Do not use metaphor

A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for example, 'a glaring error', 'the heart of the matter', 'pillar of the community', 'wave of terrorism', and so on.

Rule 22: Do not use similes

A simile compares a person, action or object with something else - for example, 'fly like an eagle', 'solid as a rock', 'as happy as Larry', 'pleased as Punch', and so on.

Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power. Once a metaphor or simile has become a cliché, it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader. Consequently, instead of impressing your readers with your writing style, you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say.

Rule 23: Do not use figures of speech

Figures of speech are closely related to clichés. Like metaphors and similes, figures of speech provide a writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic writing.

·        The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else.

·        Management has been on a steep learning curve.

·        It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack.

Rule 24: Do not use euphemisms

Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey.

Examples: - a guest of the government (in jail)

- pre-owned (used)

- passed away (died)

- tactical omission (lie)

Euphemisms are good if they spare someone’s feelings, but they are bad if they obscure meaning, or give a positive connotation to something illegal, immoral, or otherwise unacceptable.

Rule 25: Do not talk about parts of the paragraph.

Do not write:

• this paragraph shows...

•  The topic sentence is...

• A quote that proves this is...

Rule 26: Do not begin a sentence with numerals.

For example, instead of writing: "400 people..." write: "Four hundred people..."

Spell out all numbers less than 10. Ex: 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out. Ex: 15 students.... = Fifteen students ...

Use numerals 10 or above. Instead of writing: "There were 9 people...", write: "There were nine people..."

Rule 27: Do not use non-specific words.

For example: stuff, things, lots, etc...

Rule 28: Do not use ambiguous words.

For example: this, these, his, it, they, there is, there are, etc...

These words have no meaning in themselves, but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context. In written text, however, the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader, because there are many possible interpretations of "it" and "this".

Notes:

1.    It is acceptable to use ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘these’, and ‘those’ when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of the pronoun. Eg: “This character traits ...”

2.    It is acceptable to use ‘it’ as a preparatory subject. (See more at Rule 10)

If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held, you can use the passive form of a reporting verb with it as its impersonal subject.

It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years. The following reporting verbs are often used in this way: accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict

You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations. When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem. In the sentences overleaf, the subject of appear and seem is it. As you can see, they are followed by that-clauses.

It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover.

It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai.

3.    It is aceptable to use ‘there is’ as a preparatory subject. (See Rule 44)

Rule 29: Do not ask rhetorical questions.

Readers want answers! So, instead of: "Do you know where the origin of tea is?" Write: "Tea originated in southern China near the border with India."

A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected. A rhetorical question is one in a written text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer, or where the writer goes on to answer the question in the text. Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing: readers might not know the answer and the point being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement. You should not risk your point being misunderstood: make your point clear and 'up front'; for example:

Rule 30: Write "most people”, instead of the incorrect "most of people" Likewise, "most women", "most animals", etc. But "most of the people" is OK.

Rule 31: Do not use the expressions and so on or etc.

Instead use such as.

The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing. Thus, instead of the informal "Japan imports potatoes, corn, wheat, and so on," write "Japan imports food such as potatoes, corn and wheat."

Run on expressions include phrases such as 'and so forth', 'and so on' or 'etc'. Try to complete the sentence properly; do not use these if you can avoid them; for example

Rule 32: Place adverbs within the verb

Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions. In informal English, adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences; for example:

Rule 33: Avoid phrases such as "I believe," "I feel," and "I think."

Even worse are phrases that add an adverb, such as "I strongly believe." Your tone will be much more confident if you just make the statement without preface.

Rule 34: Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence.

Unnecessary words like "Actually", "Really" or "Basically" can be omitted.

Rule 35: Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay.

For example, instead of writing: "Will you come?" You should write: He asked me if I would come.

Rule 36: Do not use informal language

- In formal English one would use the word “whom” instead of the word “who” in certain situations. Formal: Whom did they elect?

Informal: Who did they elect?

Formal - Use 'whom' as an object: Whom have they chosen for the position? Informal - Use 'who' as an object: Who have they chosen for the position?

Formal : With whom did you study? Informal : Who did you study with?

In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures.

Formal: To which nation does he belong? Informal: Which nation does he belong to?

Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language. In informal language we often leave out some words.

Formal: She said that she would come. Informal: She said she would come. Formal: Have you seen Annie?

Informal: Seen Annie?

Rule 37: Avoid using unnecessary words

Wordy phrases                                                  Using better English

1.      it would appear that ...                          1. apparently ...

2.      with the exception of ...                          2. except ...

3.      in connection with ...                                  3. about ...

4.      are found to be in agreement with ...           4. agree ...

5.      a large majority of ...                                       5. most ...

6.      in the event that ...                                               6. if ...

7.      a disproportionate number ...                                   7. few ...

8.      arrive at a decision ...                                                 8. decide ...

9.      for a further period of ten years ...                              9. for another ten years ...

10.  such is by no means the case ...                             10. this is not so ...

11.  in the field of education ...                                              11. in education ...

12.  they are without legal representation whatsoever ...       12. they have no legal representation ...

13.  in the case of the third question ...                                          13. in the third question ...

14.  at the present time, overseas companies are ...                        14. overseas companies are now ...

15.  there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health ... 15. the Department of Health is obliged ...

Rule 38: Use singular determiners with plural verbs

Determiners like each, every, either and neither are singular. They should be followed by singular verbs. Of course, in an informal style, you can put plural verbs after them, but if you do that in your IELTS essay, the examiner will not be too happy with you.

Non-academic: Neither of us like him. Academic: Neither of us likes him.

Rule 39: Avoid idiomatic language

English is highly idiomatic, but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic writing. Of course, it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either. You can use some idioms, but you must avoid the more ‘colourful’ ones like ‘raining cats and dogs’, ‘hit the nail on the head’ or ‘throw the baby out with the bathwater’. Some idioms, on the other hand, are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing.

Rule 40: Do not start sentences with ‘And’, ‘Also’, ‘So’, ‘Or’, ‘Even so’, and ‘But’

Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate. A few decades ago it was considered totally unacceptable. Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with these conjunctions. However, the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them. You must, however, make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side.

Instead of these, use `In addition', `However', `Hence', `Consequently', `Alternatively', `Nevertheless' at the beginninge of the sentence.

Rule 41: Do not use informal phrasal verbs

You cannot avoid all of them in your writing. It is not necessary either. Just make sure that you do not use a large number of phrasal verbs in your essay.

Rule 42: Use passives

Passives without ‘agents’ are common in academic and scientific writing. By using passive structures we will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns. Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about an action, but are not interested in saying who or what did / does it.

The passive voice is one of the two voices in English. It is contrasting with active voice. In the passive, the object of the active voice becomes the subject, and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action. The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples.

- In recent years, researchers have published several analyses of survey data (active sentence).

- In recent years, several analyses of survey data have been published.

Furthermore, the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language. Certain grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic writing than in general English. So, passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of academic language. Moreover, the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an indirect style and showsthe writer’s objectivity. This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is frequently used in academic writing (it is said that...... he is said to) as shown in the following examples:

- The child acquires the language in short period of time.

- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time.

Similarly, using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is considered the most used in written genres

Rule 43: Employ tentative rather than assertive language.

- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases; e.g. 'This is possibly caused by...' or 'This is probably the most important factor.'

- using the modal verbs may and might; e.g. 'This may be the most important factor.'

- using appears to + V and seems to + V; e.g. 'This appears to be the most important factor.'

- avoiding always and every, and replacing them with often and many/much.

- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader.

Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language. To express an idea or finding in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers. To avoid making strong claims and expressing subjective opinions, academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language. Compare the tentative and assertive language in the table below.

Modal verbs such as could, may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers express uncertainty or tentativeness. Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to, as well as adverbs of probability: perhaps, possibly, probably, likely, unlikely.

Of course, depending on viewpoint and the available evidence, a writer can express greater or lesser degrees of certainty. Look at the examples in the table below.

Rule 44: Use 'One' and ‘There’ as a subject

e.g. 'One may ask whether...' ('One' is a formal version of 'You' [plural] in general) and Use 'There' as a subject; e.g. 'There is a serious risk of...'

Some more phrases and their alternatives

- One could say that ... / Perhaps, ...

- One could draw the conclusion that .../ In conclusion, ... - As one might expect ... / Naturally ...

- There is not a shadow of doubt that ... / Certainly, ... There is the possibility that .... / Possibly, ...

There can be no doubt that .../ I am sure ...

There are those who maintain that ... / Some people say .... There is a school of thoughts that ... / Some people say .... There is a strong likelihood that ... / Probably, ...

Rule 45: Use It is because and This is because correctly.

Language Analysis:

It is because is used in the following situations:

1. To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because:

It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place. (like= similar to)

It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does.

It is because the body is a machine that education is possible.

It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living.

Structure:

It is because + cause + ‘that’ + effect.

Grammar:

It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + ‘that’+ effect (clause).

e.g. It is because of your smile that I feel happy.

It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + ‘that’ + effect (clause).

e.g. It is because you smiled that I feel happy.

2.   To refer back to a cause, then give an effect, use it is because of this:

These countries’ economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem. I know you. I understand you, and it is because of this that I love you.

A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is reflected into the eye from that object. It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than white ones.

Structures:

Cause + ‘and’ + ‘it is because of this that’ + effect Cause + ‘.’ + ‘It is because of this that’ + effect

3.      To give an effect first, then explain the cause, use this is because: Examples: - Out in space, the sky looks black, instead of blue. This is because there is no atmosphere.

- As the sun begins to set, the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you. More of the light is reflected and scattered. As less reaches you directly, the sun appears less bright. The colour of the sun itself appears to change, first to orange and then to red. This is because even more of the short wavelength blues and greens are now scattered. Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes.

- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week. They must often work in the evenings or on weekends. This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times.

4. To answer questions, use it is because, this is because, or because:

- How can it be that an “awesome” God knows me by name and loves me without reservation? It is because He created me.

- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration? I believe it is because he sees the consequences for all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy.

- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear, as evidenced by the popularity of shocker, gross-out, supernatural and altogether scary books. Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart? Or maybe it is because those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road?

- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is because the amount of radiation required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the eye to stand.

- “Why are you doing that?” “Because I like it.”

- To answer questions, use it is because, this is because, or because

- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is because the amount of radiation required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the eye to stand.

- “Why are you doing that?” “Because I like it.”

5. In 'if ' and 'when' sentences use it is because:

- If I look confused it is because I am thinking.

- If we have no peace, it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other. - When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are.

Rule 46: Use Relative Structures

Formal - Use relative structures: The woman thought that it was important to be on time. Informal - Drop certain relative structures: The woman thought it was important to be on time.

Rule 47: Use use nominalisation

Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones.

For example, instead of

Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned. Write:

The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police.

In general, academic writing tends to be fairly dense, with relatively long sentences and wide use of subordinate clauses. Remember, however, that your main aim is clarity, so don’t be too ambitious, particularly when you’re starting to write.

Rule 48: Use some sort of “hedging” language and to qualify statements that you make.

HEDGING/AVOIDING COMMITMENT

In order to put some distance between what you’re writing and yourself as writer, to be cautious rather than

assertive, you should:

- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine, suggest, claim, suppose

- use ‘attitudinal signals’ such as apparently, arguably, ideally, strangely, unexpectedly.

These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language.

- use verbs such as would, could, may, might which ‘soften’ what you’re saying.

- use qualifying adverbs such as some, several, a minority of, a few, many to avoid making overgeneralisations.

Rule 49: Do not start a sentence with ‘Therefore’.

Instead, write, for example, ‘They, therefore, ...’.

50. Use Varied Sentence Structure

Click on the following link- Variety of Sentence Structures

*** Most importantly -Don't forget to follow Writing Criteria (Click on the link)